10.

Graphs
 Graphs and Graph Models

A graph G = (V , E) consists of V, a nonempty set of

vertices (or nodes) and E, a set of edges. Each edge has
either one or two vertices associated with it, called its
endpoints. An edge is said to connect its endpoints.

Remark: The set of vertices V of a graph G may be infinite. A

graph with an infinite vertex set is called an infinite graph,
and in comparison, a graph with a finite vertex set is called a
finite graph. In this course we will usually consider only finite
graphs.

2
 Summary

• It is a pair G = (V, E), where

o V = V (G) = Set of vertices (or nodes)
o E = E (G) = Set of edges

• Example: This is a graph with four a b

vertices and five edges.
o V = {a, b, c, d} c
d
o E = {(a, b), (a, c), (b, c), (b, d), (c, d)}
 Graphs and Graph Models
– Computer network
– Social networks
– Communications networks
– Information networks
– Software design
– Transportation networks
– Biological networks
A friendship graph where two people
are connected if they are Facebook
friends
4
 Example
This computer network can be modeled using a graph in which
the vertices of the graph represent the data centers and the edges
represent communication links.
 Simple Graphs

A graph in which each edge connects two different

vertices and where no more than one edge connect
the same pair of vertices is called a simple graph.

e.g. The graph in figure 1 is an example of a simple graph.

 Multigraphs
A computer network may contain multiple links between data
centers, as shown in Figure 2. To model such networks we
need graphs that have more than one edge connecting the
same pair of vertices. Graphs that may have multiple edges
connecting the same vertices are called multigraphs.
 Pseudographs
Sometimes a communication link connects a data center with
itself. To model this network we need to include edges that
connect a vertex to itself. Such edges are called loops.
Graphs that may include loops, and possibly multiple edges
are sometimes called pseudographs.

8
 Directed Graphs
Definition 2: A directed graph (or digraph) (V, E)
consists of a nonempty set of vertices V and a set
of directed edges (or arcs) E. Each directed edge
is associated with an ordered pair of vertices.
The directed edge associated with the ordered pair
(u, v) is said to start at u and end at v. When a
directed graph has no loops and has no multiple
directed edges, it is called a simple directed
graph.

9
Simple Directed Graph

10
 Directed Multigraph
Directed graphs that may have multiple directed edges from a
vertex to a second (possibly the same) vertex are to used
model such networks. We call such graphs directed
multigraphs.
 Graph Terminology: Summary
To understand the structure of a graph and to build a graph model, we
ask these questions:
• Are the edges of the graph undirected or directed (or both)?
• If the edges are undirected, are multiple edges present that connect
the same pair of vertices? If the edges are directed, are multiple
directed edges present?
• Are loops present?

12
 Graph Terminology

• Adjacent, connects, endpoints, degree, initial,

terminal, in-degree, out-degree, complete,
complete bipartite, cycles, wheels, n-cubes.

13
 Undirected Graph: Adjacency

Let G be an undirected graph with edge set E. Let e

 E where e = {u ,v}. We say that:
• The vertices u and v are adjacent / neighbors /
connected.
• The edge e is incident with vertices u and v.
• The edge e connects u and v.
• The vertices u and v are endpoints of the edge e.

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 Undirected Graph: Degree of a Vertex

• Let G be an undirected graph, v V a vertex.

• The degree of v, deg(v), is its number of incident
edges. (Except that any self-loops are counted
twice.)
• A vertex with degree 0 is isolated.
• A vertex of degree 1 is pendant.

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 Handshaking Theorem

• Let G = (V, E ) be an undirected (simple, multi- or

pseudo-) graph with e edges. Then:

 deg(v)  2 E
v V

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 Handshaking Theorem
Example 1: How many edges are there in a graph with
ten vertices each of degree 6?
Solution: Sum of the degrees of the vertices 6×10 =
60. Therefore: 60 = 2|E| , |E| = 30.

Example 2: If a graph has 5 vertices, can each vertex

have degree 3?
Solution: This is not possible by the handshaking
theorem, because the sum of the degrees of the
vertices 3 × 5 = 15 is odd.
 Example
deg(a) = 6
deg(b) = 4
deg(c) = 1 pendant
deg(d) = 0 isolated
deg(e) = 3
deg(f ) = 4
deg(g) = 2

∑deg(v ) = 20 = 2 (10) = 2 ∑edges

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 Directed Graph: Adjacency
• Let G be a directed (possibly multi-) graph, and
let e be an edge of G that is (u ,v). Then we say:
u v
– u is adjacent to v, v is adjacent from u
– e comes from u, e goes to v.
– e connects u to v, e goes from u to v
– The initial vertex of e is u
– The terminal vertex of e is v

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 Directed Graph: Degree of a vertex

• Let G be a directed graph and v a vertex of G.

• The in-degree of v, deg(v), is the number of
edges going to v (v is terminal).
• The out-degree of v, deg(v), is the number of
edges coming from v (v is initial).
• The degree of v, deg(v) = deg(v) + deg(v), is the
sum of v’s in-degree and out-degree.
• A loop at a vertex contributes 1 to both in-degree
and out-degree of this vertex.

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 Directed Handshaking Theorem

• Let G be a directed (possibly multi-) graph with

vertex set V and edge set E. Then:
1

v V
deg (v)   deg (v)   deg(v)  E


v V


2 v V
• Note that the degree of a node is unchanged by
whether we consider its edges to be directed or
undirected.

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 Example
deg+(a) = 3 deg−(a) = 3
deg+(b) = 3 deg−(b) = 1
deg+(c) = 0 deg−(c) = 1
deg+(d) = 0 deg−(d) = 0
deg+(e) = 1 deg−(e) = 2
deg+(f ) = 2 deg−(f ) = 2
deg+(g) = 1 deg−(g) = 1

∑deg+ (v) = ∑deg− (v) = 1/2 ∑deg(v) = ∑edges = 10

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 Special Graph Structures

Special cases of undirected graph structures:

• Complete graphs: Kn
• Complete bipartite graphs: Km,n
• Cycles: Cn
• Wheels: Wn
• n-Cubes: Qn

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 Complete Graphs
• For any n  N, a complete graph on n vertices,
Kn , is a simple graph with n nodes in which every
node is adjacent to every other node:
u , v V : u  v  {u , v}  E.

K1 K2 K3 K4
K5 K6

Note that Kn has n vertices and n(n  1) edges.

2
 Complete Bipartite Graphs
• The complete bipartite graph Km,n is the graph
that has its vertex set partitioned into two subsets
of m and n vertices such that there is an edge
between vertices if and only if one vertex in the
first set and the other vertex in the second set.

K2,3 K3,5
Note that Km,n has m+n vertices and mn edges.
 Cycles
• For any n  3, a cycle on n vertices, Cn , is a
simple graph where V = {v1,v2, … ,vn} and
E = {{v1, v2}, {v2, v3}, …, {vn1, vn}, {vn , v1}}.

C3 C4 C5 C6 C8
C7
Note that Cn has n vertices and n edges.

26
 Wheels
• For any n  3, a wheel Wn , is a simple graph
obtained by taking the cycle Cn and adding one
extra vertex vhub and n extra edges {{vhub, v1}, {vhub,
v2}, …, {vhub, vn}}.

W3 W4 W5 W6 W8
W7
Note that Wn has n+1 vertices and 2n edges.

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 n -Cubes (Hypercubes)
• For any n  N, the hypercube Qn is a simple
graph consisting of two copies of Qn-1 connected
together at corresponding nodes. Q0 has 1 node.

Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Note that Qn has 2n vertices and n2n − 1 edges.

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 Graph Representations

• Graph representations:
– Adjacency Lists.
– Adjacency Matrices.
– Incidence Matrices.

29
 Undirected: Adjacency Lists
• A table with 1 row per vertex, listing its adjacent
vertices.

a b Adjacent
Vertex
Vertices
c d a b, c
e
f b a, c, e, f
c a, b, f
d -
e b
f c, b

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 Undirected: Adjacency Matrices
• Matrix A = [aij], where aij is 1 if {vi ,vj } is an edge
of G, 0 otherwise.
a b a b c d e
a 0 1 1 0 0
c e b1 0 1 0 1

d
c 1 1 0 0 0
 
d 0 0 0 0 0
e 
0 1 0 0 0


31
 Example 1

Draw a graph using the following adjacency matrix A

with respect to the vertices: a, b, c, d :

1 1 1 0 a b
1 0 0 1
A 
1 0 0 1
 
0 1 1 0 d c

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 Example 2

Find an adjacency matrix that represents the graph:

a b c d
a b a 0 3 0 2
3 0 1 1 
b 
c 0 1 1 2
 
d c d 2 1 2 0

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 Example 3
Let A be the adjacency matrix of a graph G with vertices a, b, c,
d . Find the degrees of the vertices of G.

0 1 1 1 
1 0 1 0
A 
1 1 0 0
Answer: The degrees of thevertices a, b, c and d of G are 3, 2, 2
and 1, respectively. 1 0 0 0

34
 Directed Adjacency Lists
• 1 row per node, listing the terminal nodes of each
edge incident from that node.
Initial Terminal
vertex vertices
V1 V2, V4, V5
V2 V4

V3 V5

V4
V5 V2

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 Directed Adjacency Matrices

• Matrix A = [aij], where aij is 1 if {vi ,vj } is an edge

of G, 0 otherwise.
v1 v2 v3 v4 v5
v1 0 1 0 1 1
v2 0 0 0 1 0
 
v3 0 1 0 0 1
 
v4 0 0 0 0 0
v5 
0 1 0 0 0


36
 Incidence Matrices
• It is a matrix A = [aij], where aij is 1 if the edge ej
is incident with the vertex vi , 0 otherwise.
1 e1 2 e1 e2 e3 e4
e2 e4 1 1 1 0 0
e3
3 4 2 1 0 1 1
 
5 3 0 1 1 0
 
4 0 0 0 1
50 0 0 0


37
Incidence Matrices

38
 Example
Let A be the incident matrix of a graph G. Draw G.
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
A
1 0 1 0 0
 
1 0 0 1 1

e2
a b
Let G = {V, E}, e3 e4
e5
where V= {a, b, c, d} and
E = {e1, e2, e3, e4, e5}. d c
e1
 Connectivity

• In an undirected graph, a path of length n from u

to v is a sequence of adjacent edges going from
vertex u to vertex v.
• A path is a circuit if u = v.
• A path traverses the vertices along it.
• A path is simple if it contains no edge more than
once.

40
 Connectivity

• Simple path: a, d, c, f, e
The edges are {a, d }, {d, c}, {c, f }, {f, e}
Length = 4
• Circuit: b, c, f, e, b
The edges are {b, c},{c, f }, {f, e},{e, b}
Length = 4
• Not a path: d, e, c, a because {e, c} is not an edge
• Not a simple path: a, b, e, d, a, b because {a, b} appears
twice, Length = 5
41
 Paths in Directed Graphs

• Same as in undirected graphs, but the path must

go in the direction of the arrows.
e.g. Simple path a, b, c
a

b d

42
 Undirected Graphs: Connectedness

• An undirected graph is called connected if there is

a path between every pair of distinct vertices of
the graph.
e.g.

G1 is connected and G2 is not connected (No path between a and d)

43
 Connected Components
• A graph that is not connected is the union of two
or more connected subgraphs with no vertices in
common. These disjoint connected subgraphs are
called the connected components of the graph.

Graph H has three connected components

44
Directed Graphs: Connectedness

• Definition 1:
A directed graph is strongly connected if there is
a path from a to b and from b to a whenever a and
b are vertices in the graph.
• Definition 2:
A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a
path between every two vertices when the
direction of edges are disregarded.

45
 Example

a b a b

c d c d

Strongly connected weakly connected

(No directed path from a to b)

46
 Shortest-Path Problems*

Many problems can be modeled using graphs with weights

assigned to their edges. As an illustration, consider how an
airline system can be modeled. We set up the basic graph
model by representing cities by vertices and flights by
edges. Problems involving distances can be modeled
Problems involving flight time by assigning distances
between cities to the edges. can be modeled by assigning
flight times to edges. Problems involving fares can be
modeled by assigning fares to the edges. Graphs that have a
number assigned to each edge are called weighted graphs.

47
 Example*
Flight mileage

48
 Example*
Flight times
 Example*
Flight Fares
 Question*

What is a shortest path, that is, a path of least length,

between two given vertices? For instance, in the
airline system represented by the weighted graph
shown in Figure 1 what is a shortest path in air
distance between Boston and Los Angeles? What
combinations of flights has the smallest total flight
time (that is, total time in the air, not including time
between flights) between Boston and Los Angeles?
What is the cheapest fare between these two cities?
 Example*
What is the shortest path from a to z in the figure

Path length
abcz 4+3+2=9
abez 4+3+1=8
adez 2+3+1=6 (the shortest path)
 The Traveling Salesman Problem*

Consider the following problem:

A traveling salesman wants to visit each of n cities
exactly once and return to his starting point. For
example, suppose that the salesman wants to visit
Detroit, Toledo, Saginaw, Grand Rapids, and
Kalamazoo (see Figure 5). In which order should he
visit these cities to travel the minimum total distance?
The Traveling Salesman Problem*

Shortest circuit Total distance

The Traveling Salesman Problem*

Shortest circuit : distance Total