Objectives

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify and arguments made

about mathematics and mathematical concepts;
2. Write clear and logical proofs;
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems
following Polya’s four steps; and
4. Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving
problems.
Mathematical reasoning is
the process of finding the
proof for a certain
mathematical statement by
using logic and deductions.
Inductive Reasoning refers to the process
of making generalized decisions after
observing and/or witnessing, repeated
specific instances of something. Inductive
reasoning is a process of reaching
conclusions based on a series of
observations. A conclusion reached by
inductive reasoning may or may not be
valid. Inductive is used to form
hypothesis.
Deductive Reasoning refers to the
process of taking the information
gathered from general observations
and making specific decisions based
on the information. Deductive
reasoning is a process of reaching
conclusions based on previously
known facts. The conclusion reached
by the deductive reasoning are
correct and valid. Deductive
reasoning is used to prove ideas.
Examples of Deductive Reasoning
1st premise: All numbers ending in 0 or 5 are divisible by 5.
2nd premise: The numbers 35 ends with a 5.
Conclusion: Therefore, 35 is divisible by 5.

1st premise: All squares are rectangles.

2nd premise: All rectangles have four sides.
Conclusion: Therefore, all squares have four sides.

1st premise: Cacti are plants

2nd premise: All plants perform photosynthesis.
Conclusion: Therefore, cacti perform photosynthesis.

1st premise: All men are mortal

2nd premise: Algebra teachers are men
Conclusion: Therefore, Algebra teachers are mortal.
Examples of Inductive Reasoning
1st premise: John in an excellent swimmer.
2nd premise: John’s family has a swimming pool.
Conclusion: John’s sister also be an excellent swimmer.

1st premise: Elijah is good looking.

2nd premise: Elijah is well-behaved.
Conclusion: Therefore, all good looking are well-behaved.

1st premise: The coin pulled from a bag is a penny.

2nd premise: The second coin from the bag is a penny.
Conclusion: Therefore, all the coins in the bag are pennies.

1st premise: Children in the day care center are playful.

2nd premise: Children in the day care center like to play with Legos.
Conclusion: Therefore, playful children like to play Legos.
Which comes next in the series?
Answer
Which comes next in the series?
Answer
Which comes next in the series?
Answer
Which comes next in the series?
Answer
Intuition,
Proof and
Certainty
Intuition is the ability to understand
something instinctively, without the need for
conscious reasoning. It is instinctive
knowledge, meaning the state of being aware
of or knowing something without having to
discover or perceive it, or the ability to do
this. It is instinctive belief, meaning that
something is known or believed instinctively,
without actual evidence for it.
A Mathematical Proof is an argument
which convinces other people that
something is true. Proof is an argument
for a mathematical statement. It is a
conclusive evidence or an argument that
serves to establish a fact or the truth of
something. Proof consists of a test or trial
of something to establish that is true.
In direct proof, the conclusion is
established by logically combining
the axioms, definitions and earlier
theorems.
Example of Direct Proof
Proof that the sum of two even integers is always even.

Proof: Consider two even integers x and y. Since they are even, they can
be written as x = 2a and y = 2b, respectively, for integers a and b. Then
the sum x + y = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b). Therefore, x + y has 2 as a factor and,
by definition, is even. Hence the sum of any two even integers is even.

Hints in the proof:

Hint No 1. Definition of even integers.
Hint No 2: The integer properties of closure under condition and
multiplication and distributivity.
Polya’s Four
Steps to Problem
Solving
Geogre Polya (1887-1985) known as the
father of modern problem solving who did
extensive studies and wrote papers and
books about problem solving, formulated
the four-step approach to problem solving.
Step 1. Preparation: Understand the
problem
a. Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts
b. Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:
- What sort of a problem is it?
- What is being asked?
- What do the terms mean?
- Is there enough information or is more information needed?
- What is known or unknown?
c. Rephrase the problem in your own words.
d. Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem.
Step 2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan.
a. You must start somewhere so try something. How are you going to attack the problem?
b. Possible strategies
- Draw pictures
- Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns
- Be Systematic.
- Solve a simpler version of the problem.
- Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test.
- Look for a pattern or patterns
- Make a list
c. Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the problem aside for a
while. Your subconscious mind may keep working on it.
d. Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and creative rather than
becoming tense, frustrated, and forced in your efforts to solve the problem.
Step 3. Insight: Carry out the plan.
a. Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down immediately. When
you have time, try it out and see if it leads to a solution.
b. If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try another
approach. Often the first approach does not work. Do not worry, just because
an approach does not work, it does not mean you did it wrong. You actually
accomplished something, knowing a way does not work is part of the process
of elimination.
c. Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times,
you will often have a flash of insight: a new idea to try or a new perspective
on how to approach solving the problem.
d. The key is to keep trying until something works.
4. Verification: Look back.
a. Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works.
- Did you answer the question?
- Is your result reasonable?
- Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to
the problem are satisfied.
- Double check any computations involved in finding your solution
b. If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple mistake. Try
to fix or modify your current attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you tried – it
is likely that at least part of it will end up being useful.
c. Is there another way doing the problem which may be simpler?
d. Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future problems?
Problem Solving
Strategies
Simple and common problem solving
strategies
• Guess (This includes guess-and-check and guess-and-improve)
• Act it Out (Act it out and use equipment)
• Draw (This includes drawing pictures and diagrams)
• List/Tabulate (This includes making a table)
Example 1. The sum of a number and 2 is 6 less than twice
that number.
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem.
- Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
- Since we are looking for a number, we will let , x = a number
Step 2: Devise a plan (translate)
- the sum of a number and 2 is 6 less than twice that number.
x + 2 = 2x – 6
Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve)
x=8
Step 4: Look back (check and interpret)
- If you take the sum of 8 and 2 less than twice 8, so this does check.
Example 2. A rectangular garden has a width that is 8 feet less than
twice the length. Find the dimensions if the perimeter is 20 feet.
Solution:
Step 1: Understand the problem.
- Make sure that you read the question carefully several times.
- Since we are looking for the length and width of the rectangle we will let L =
length and width 2L – 8 = Width.
Step 2: Devise a plan (translate)
Perimeter = 2Length + 2 width
20 = 2L + 2(2L – 8)
Step 3: Carry out the plan (solve)
L=6
Step 4: Look back (check and interpret)
- If length is 6, then width, which is 8 feet less than the length would have to be 4.
The perimeter of a rectangle with width of 4 feet and length of 6 feet is 20 feet.
Example 3
The sum of 3 consecutive odd integers is 57. Find the integers.
Answer
17, 19 and 21
Example 4
The sum of 3 consecutive integers is 258. Find the integers.
Answer
85, 86, and 87
Example 5
How many different rectangles with an area of twelve square units can
be formed using unit squares?
Answer
Which indicates the integral multiple of sides of the rectangle=>the
factors of the value of the area of rectangle to be integers. The integral
factors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6,12.So out of these six two pairs to be chosen
to find their multiplication=12.So they are (1,12),(2,6),(3,4).So only 3
possible rectangles are possible.
Mathematical
Problems
Involving
Patterns
Example. Given the following diagram, find the
number of dots and lines by completing the table
Solution
Number of Dots Number of Lines Number of Hexagons
1 6 1
2 6 + ( 1 x 5 ) = 11 2
3 6 + ( 2 x 5 ) = 16 3
4 6 + ( 3 x 5 ) = 21 4
6 6 + ( 5 x 5 ) = 31 6
7 6 + ( 6 x 5 ) = 31 7
8 6 + ( 7 x 5 ) = 41 8
(46 – 6) 5+ 1 = 9 46 9
12 6 + ( 11 x 5 ) = 61 12
(136 – 6) 5 + 1 = 27 136 27
Example. Find the sum of the first 100 even
positive numbers. Find the pattern
Solution:

The sum of first 1 even positive no. is 2 or 1(1+1) = 1(2)

The sum of first 2 even positive no. is 2 + 4 = 6 or 2(2+1) = 2(3)
The sum of the first 3 even numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 = 12 or 3(3+1) = 3(4)
The sum of the first 4 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20 or
4(4+1) = 4(5)

Pattern: The sum of the first 100 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 + …=?
or 100(100+1) = 100(101) or 10100
Recreational Problems using Mathematics
Recreational Mathematics involves problems, riddles, puzzles, brain-
teasers and games carried out for recreation or leisure rather than as a
research or application-based professional activity. Recreational
mathematics employs creative problem solving, logical reasoning
approaches, reflective thinking and algebra techniques.

Recreational mathematics include magic squares, chessboard problems,

logical puzzles, paradoxes, Sudoku, Pythagorean triples, polyominoes,
shapes and symmetry, origami, fractals, Pascal’s triangle, probability, prime
numbers, number bases, Fibonacci numbers, knots, shapes and colors