Digital image processing

Chapter two

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Digital image fundamentals

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contents

 Basic concept of image

 Digital image acquisition process
 Image sampling and quantization
 Digital image Representation
 Representation of different image type’s
 Mathematical Tools used in Digital Image Processing

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Basic concept of image

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Digital Image Processing Introduction

 A signal can be one dimensional or two dimensional or

higher dimensional signal.
 One dimensional signal is a signal that is measured over
time. The common example is a voice signal.

 The two dimensional signals are those that are measured

over some other physical quantities.
 The example of two dimensional signal is a digital image.
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Signal and System Introduction

 Signals:
 Electrical engineering: the fundamental quantity of
representing some information is called a signal.
 Mathematics: a signal is a function that conveys some
information.
A signal could be of any dimension and could be of any
form.
 A signal cab be: Analog or Digital.

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Signal and System Introduction

 Analog signals:
 It is a continuous signal.
 They are difficult to analyze, as they carry a huge number of
values.
 They are very much accurate due to a large sample of
values.
 Needs infinite memory to store and denoted by sin waves.
 Example: Human voices (having independent variables of
space and time)
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Signal and System Introduction

 Digital signals:
 They are discontinuous signals.
 They are very easy to analyze.
 Digital signals are less accurate than analog signals because
they are the discrete samples of an analog signal.
 Digital signals are not subject to noise so that they last long
and are easy to interpret.
 Digital signals are denoted by square waves.
 Example: computer
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Signal and System Introduction

 Difference between analog and digital signals:

Criteria Analog Signal Digital Signal

Analysis Difficult Possible to analyze
Representation Continues Discontinuous
Accuracy More accurate Less accurate
Storage Infinite memory Easily stored
Subject to Noise Yes No
Recording Techniques Original signal is preserved Samples of the signal are taken
and preserved
Examples Human voice, Thermometer Computers, Digital phones

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Signal and System Introduction

 Conversion of analog to digital signals:

 There are two main concepts that are involved in the
conversion of analog to digital signal.
 Sampling: take samples of a digital signal over x axis.
 Sampling is done on an independent variable.

 Quantization: is done on dependent variable; it is opposite

to sampling.
 Quantization is done on the Y variable.
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Signal and System Introduction

 Sampling is done on the x variable.

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Signal and System Introduction

 Quantization is done on the y variable.

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Signal and System Introduction

 Why do we need to convert an analog signal to digital

signal?
 Analog signal need infinite memory to store them;
 To process the signal using a digital computer the signal
need to be converted to digital.

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Applications and Usage

 Electromagnetic waves can be thought of as stream of

particles, where each particle is moving with the speed of
light.
 Each particle contains a bundle of energy.
 This bundle of energy is called a photon.

 The electromagnetic spectrum according to the energy of

photon is shown below.
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Applications and Usage

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Applications and Usage

 In this electromagnetic spectrum, we are only able to see the

visible spectrum.
 Visible spectrum mainly includes seven different colors that
are commonly term as VIBGOYR.
 VIBGOYR stands for violet , indigo , blue , green , orange ,
yellow and Red.
 But a camera can see the other things that a naked eye is
unable to see. For example: x rays , gamma rays , e.t.c.
 Hence the analysis of all that other ES is done in digital image
processing.
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Concept of Dimensions

 Dimensions define the minimum number of points required to point a

position of any particular object within a space.
 Example: longitude, latitude, and altitude.

 An image has only height and width. An image does not have depth.

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Concept of Dimensions

 Different dimensions of signals:

1 dimension signal (Fx = waveform)
2 dimensions signal (Fx, y = Image)
3 dimensions signal (Fx, y, z = animated character)
4 dimensions signal (Fx, y, z, t = animated movie)

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Image Formation on Camera

 When light falls upon the particular object , it is reflected

back after striking through the object.
 The rays of light when passed through the lens of eye , form
a particular angle , and the image is formed on the retina
which is the back side.

 The image that is formed on the retina is inverted.

 This image is then interpreted by the brain and that makes us
able to understand things.
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Image Formation on Camera

 Image formation in human eye:

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Image Formation on Camera

 In analog cameras , the image formation is due to the chemical

reaction that takes place on the strip that is used for image formation.
 A 35mm film cartridge is used in analog camera.
 This film is coated with silver halide a chemical substance.

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Image Formation on Camera

 In the digital camera , a CCD (charge-coupled device)

array of sensors is used for the image formation.
 It is an image sensor, and like other sensors it senses the
values and converts them into an electric signal.

 This CCD is actually in the shape of array or a

rectangular grid.
 It is like a matrix with each cell in the matrix contains a
sensor that senses the intensity of photon.
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Image Formation on Camera

 Each sensor of the CCD array itself is an analog sensor.

 When photons of light strike on the chip , it is held as a small
electrical charge in each photo sensor.
 The response of each sensor is directly equal to the amount of
light or photon energy striked on the surface of the sensor.

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Image Formation on Camera

 The value of each sensor of the CCD array refers to each

value of individual pixel.
 The number of sensors = number of pixels.

 It also means that each sensor could have only one and
only one value.

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Concept of Pixel

 Pixel is the smallest element of an image. Each pixel

correspond to any one value.
 In an 8-bit gray scale image, the value of the pixel between
0 and 255.

 The value of a pixel at any point correspond to the intensity

of the light photons striking at that point.
 Each pixel store a value proportional to the light intensity at
that particular location.
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Concept of Pixel

 The number of pixels would be equal to the number of

rows multiply with number of columns.
 This can be mathematically represented as below:
 Total number of pixels = number of rows X number of columns

 Example: a three by three image matrix has:

 Total number of pixels = 3 X 3
 Pixels = 9

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Concept of Bits per Pixel

 Bpp or bits per pixel denotes the number of bits per pixel.
 The number of different colors in an image is depends on the
depth of color or bits per pixel.

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Concept of Bits per Pixel

 Black color: 0 pixel value always denotes black color; but

there is no fixed value that denotes white color.
 White color: the value that denotes white color can be
calculated as:
 White color = (2)bpp - 1

 In case of 1 bpp , 0 denotes black , and 1 denotes white.

 In case 8 bpp , 0 denotes black , and 255 denotes white.

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Concept of Bits per Pixel

 Image storage requirements: the size of an image depends

upon three things.
 Number of rows;
 Number of columns;
 Number of bits per pixel.

 Size of an image = rows * cols * bpp

 Example: a gray scale image of 1024 rows by 1024 cols
 Size of an image = 1024 * 1024 * 8 = 8388608

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Types of Images

 There are many type of images:

 Binary image: contain only two pixel values 0 and 1.

 Monochrome (0 refers to black and 1 to white color)

 Black and white image
 Gray scale image: it has 256 different shades of colors.

 Vary from 0-255 (0 stands for black and 255 stands for white)
 127 or 128 stands for gray color.
 Color image: true color format

 24 bit (Red, Green and Blue each 8 bits)

 Three different matrix of R, G, and B.

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Image sensing and acquisition

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Image sensing and acquisition

 Images are generated by the combination source and the

reflection or absorption of energy from that source

 Depending on the source, illumination energy is :

 Reflected from or

 Transmitted through objects

 Example in the first category: light reflected from a planer

surface.

 Example in the second category: when X-rays pass through a

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patient’s body for generating a diagnosis X-ray film

Image sensing and acquisition…
 Three principal sensor arrangements used to transform illumination
energy in to digital images.
 Single imaging sensor

 Line sensor

 Array sensor

 Incoming energy is transformed into a voltage by a combination of

the input electrical power and sensor material that is responsive to
the type of energy being detected.

 The output voltage waveform is the response of the sensor, and a

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digital quantity is obtained by digitizing that response.
Three principal sensor arrangement

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Image acquisition using a single sensing element
• Figure shows the components of a
single sensor. Single imaging sensor
• A familiar sensor of this type is the
photodiode.

• To generate a 2-D image using a

single sensing element, there has to
be relative displacements in both the
x- and y-directions between the
sensor and the area to be imaged.
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image acquisition using a single sensing element
• A film negative is mounted on to a drum
Combining a single sensor
whose mechanical notation provides a with motion to generate a
displacement in one dimension. 2-D image

• The single sensor is a mounted on a lead

screw that provides motion in the
perpendicular direction.

• Because mechanical motion can be

controlled with high precision, this
method is an inexpensive (but slow) way
to obtain high resolution images. 36
Figure 1: Image acquisition using linear sensor strip and
circular sensor strip

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Image acquisition using sensor strips

• A geometry used more frequently than single sensors

consists of an in-line arrangement of sensors in the form

of a sensor strip as shown in figure.

• the strip provides imaging elements in one direction.

Line sensor

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Image acquisition using sensor strips…
• Motion perpendicular to the strip provides
imaging in the other direction, as shown in Image acquisition using
linear sensor strip
Figure.

• This arrangement is used in most flat bed

scanners. Sensing devices with 4000 or
more in-line sensors are possible.

• The imaging strip gives one line of an

image at a time, and the motion of the strip
completes the other dimension of a two-
dimensional image
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Image acquisition using sensor strips…

• Sensor strips in a ring configuration are used in

medical and industrial imaging to obtain cross-
See figure1
sectional (“slice”) images of 3-D objects, as (b)
shown in Figure.

• A rotating X-ray source provides illumination,

and X-ray sensitive sensors opposite the source
collect the energy that passes through the object.

• This is the basis for medical and industrial

computerized axial tomography (CAT) imaging
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Image acquisition using sensor arrays

• Figure shows individual sensing elements

arranged in the form of a 2-D array.
• Electromagnetic and ultrasonic sensing devices
frequently are arranged in this manner. Array sensor
• also the predominant arrangement found in
digital cameras.
• The response of each sensor is proportional to the
integral of the light energy projected onto the
surface of the sensor,
• a property that is used in astronomical and other
applications requiring low noise images.
• sensor array is two dimensional, and its key
advantage is that a complete image can be
obtained by focusing the energy pattern onto the 41
surface of the array.
Figure shows the principal manner in which array sensors are used. (a) Illumination (energy) source. (b) A scene. (c) Imaging system. (d) Projection of the scene onto the image plane. (e) Digitized
image.

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A simple image formation model
 Images by two-dimensional functions of the form f(x, y).
 The value or amplitude of f at spatial coordinates (x, y) gives the intensity
(brightness) of the image at that point.
 As light is a form of energy, f(x,y) must be non zero and finite.

 The function f(x, y) may be characterized by two components:

the amount of source illumination incident on the scene being viewed
the amount of illumination reflected by the objects in the scene.
• These are called the illumination and reflectance components and are denoted by
i(x, y) and r(x, y), respectively.
 The two functions combine as a product to form f(x, y).

where
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Image sampling and quantization

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Image sampling and quantization

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Image sampling and quantization

 there are numerous ways to acquire images, but our objective in all
is to generate digital images from sensed data.

 The output of most sensors is a continuous voltage waveform whose

amplitude and spatial behavior are related to the physical
phenomenon being sensed.

 To create a digital image, we need to convert the continuous sensed

data into a digital format.

 This requires two processes: sampling and quantization.

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Image sampling and quantization

Generating a digital image. (a) Continuous image. (b) A scaling line from
A to B in the continuous image, used to illustrate the concepts of sampling
and quantization. (c) sampling and quantization. (d) Digital
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scan line.
Basic concept in image sampling and quantization

• Figure shows a continuous image f that we want to convert

to digital form.

• An image may be continuous with respect to the x- and y-

coordinates, and also in amplitude.
• Hence in order to create an image which is digital, we need
to covert continuous data into digital form.
• There are two stages in digital image processing:
 Sampling (spatial resolution ): related to coordinate
value.
 Quantization (gray-level resolution ): related to intensity
value.
• Digitizing co-ordinate values(x,y) is called “sampling”
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• Digitizing the amplitude value is called “quantization”
Basic concept in image sampling and quantization….

• The one-dimensional function in Figure is a

A scan line from A to
plot of amplitude (intensity level) values of B in the continuous
image
the continuous image along the line segment

AB in previous figure

• The random variations are due to image noise.

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Basic concept in image sampling and quantization….

• The sample points are indicated by a vertical

tick marks at the bottom of the figure.
• The samples are shown as small white
squares super imposed on the function.  Sampling and
quantization
• The set of this discrete location gives the
sample function
• To form a digital function, the intensity
values must be converted (quantized) in to
discrete quantities.
• The right side of the figure shows the
intensity scale divided into eight discrete
interval. Ranging from black to white
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Basic concept in image sampling and quantization….

• The continuous intensity levels are quantized by

assigning one of the eight values to each sample, Digital scan line

• the assignment is made depending on the vertical

proximity of a sample to a vertical tick mark.

• The digital samples resulting from both sampling

and quantization are shown as white squares in
Figure.

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Image sampling and quantization
 first figure shows a continuous image projected on to the plane of an array
sensor
 Second figure shows the image after sampling and quantization
 The quality of a digital image is determined to a large degree by the number
of samples and discrete intensity levels used in sampling and quantization.

Continuous image projected on to a sensor array result of image sampling

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and
quantization
Sampling and Quantization

Sampling
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Sampling and Quantization

Sampling
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Sampling and Quantization
• Quantization corresponds to a discretization of the
intensity values. That is, of the co-domain of the function.
 Quantization, corresponds to a transformation.
 Typically, 256 levels (8 bits/pixel) suffices to represent
the intensity. For color images, 256 levels are usually
used for each color intensity.

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 Sampling
Sampling and Quantization
and Quantization

Quantization
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Representing digital image

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Representing digital images
 Let f (s, t ) represent a continuous image function of two
continuous variables, s and t.
 We convert this function into a digital image by sampling and
quantization,
 Suppose that we sample the continuous image into a 2-D array or
digital image, f( x, y), containing M rows and N columns, where
(x, y) are discrete coordinates:
X= 0,1,2,………M-1 and y=0,1,2…………N-1
 for example, the value of the digital image at the origin is f (0, 0),
and its value at the next coordinates along the first row is f (0,1).
 In general, the value of a digital image at any coordinates (x, y )
is denoted f(x ,y), where x and y are integers.
 The section of the real plane spanned by the coordinates of an
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image is called the spatial domain, with x and y being referred to

three ways of representing f(x, y )

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 Representing digital images
• Figure shown is a plot of the function, with
two axes determining spatial location and
the third axis being the values of f as a
function of x and y (intensities).
• This representation is useful when working
with grays scale sets whose elements are
expressed as triplets of the form (x, y, z)
where x and y are spatial coordinates and z
is the value of f at coordinates ( x,y).

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 Representing digital images……
• it shows f x y ( , ) as it would appear on a
computer display or photograph.
• Here, the intensity of each point in the
display is proportional to the value of f
at that point.
• In this figure, there are only three
equally spaced intensity values. If the
intensity is normalized to the interval
[ , ], 0 1 then each point in the image has
the value 0, 0.5, or 1.
• A monitor or printer converts these
three values to black, gray, or white,
respectively
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 Representing digital images…
• As Figure shows, the third representation
is an array (matrix) composed of the
numerical values of f x y ( , ).
• This is the representation used for
computer processing.
• Simply display the numerical values of
the f(x,y) as an array (matrix).
• In this example, f is of size 600 x 600
elements or 3,60,000 numbers.
• When developing algorithm, this
representation is more useful when only
parts of the image are printed and
analyzed as numerical values.
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Representing digital images…

 In equation form, we write the representation of an M x N

numerical array as:

 Each element of this array is called an image element, picture

element, pixel, or pel.
 Sometimes, it is advantageous to use a more traditional matrix
notation to denote a digital image and its elements:

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Question & Answer

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