PRODUCTION PRACTICES FOR

ANNUAL CROPS

NENITA B. BALDO

AGRONOMY AND PLANT BREEDING DEPARTMENT

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
CENTRAL MINDANAO UNIVERSITY
MUSUAN, BUKIDNON
 KNOW THE CROP KNOW THE SITE/LOCATION
CHARACTERISTICS

Crop Requirement Site Characteristics

Considerations and Concern
- Climate requirements - Climate
- Soil Requirements - Soil
- Biological Considerations - Physical
- Socioeconomic/cultural
considerations - Biological
- Environmental Concerns - Socio economic
considerations
- Other special requirements - Other Constraints to
productivity
CROPPING PURPOSE AND INTENSITY
- Commercial or family consumption: - twice a year or thrice a year
A. Site Selection and Its Consideration:
1. Peace and Order Situation
2. Accessibility to Transportation Facilities and Marketing
Centers
3. Availability of Labor
4. Climate Factor:
a. Water or Rainfall
- 90-95% plant weight on fresh weight basis is
water - raw material for photosynthesis
- Classification of Plants Based on Water Needs:
a.1. Xerophytes – requires less water ex.
Dessert plants or orchids
a.2. Mesophytes – requires moderate amount
of water; most of the
upland crops ex. Corn and
legumes
a.3. Hydrophytes – water loving plants ex.
rice, kangkong
Table 1. Average consumptive use of water by representative
crops

CROP GROWING CONSUMPTIVE

PERIOD (Day) USE (cm)

Rice 90 - 120 72 (ws), 112 (DS

Cassava 240 – 356 50 - 250
Corn 100 55
Mungbean 60 – 68 41
Peanut 90 – 150 50 - 60
Soybean 80 – 90 53
Sugarcane 300 – 365 132
b. Temperature – optimum temperature during growing
season.
- Low night temperature – best for fruit development
- Low temperature months – favors the planting of cool
season crops
c. Light – required daylength and degree of tolerance by
crop.
- needed by the plant in the process of photosynthesis.
- Classification of Plants Based on Light:
c.1. Light Duration – refers to daylength
Long day Plant (LDP) – requires light >12 hours
to flower.
Short day Plant (SDP) – requires <12 hours of
day length to flower.
Day Neutral Plant (DNP) – not affected by
photoperiod.
c.2. Light Intensity – refers to the amount of light
received by the plant.
 - Shade–loving plants – requires less light intensity.
Grow well under shaded
conditions ex. ginger,
coffee, cacao, and gabi.
- Sun-loving plants – requires light
intensity from 10,000 to 15,000
ft. candle ex. rice, corn,
legumes. c.3. Light Quality – refers to the wave length
of light
d. Air – Compose of Nitrogen, oxygen, CO2 and H2O
e. Wind – sensitivity to wind movements or typhoons
Normal wind velocity in the Philippines = 7.2 km/hr.
Wind speed (km/hr) Affected processes/structure/part
> 30 - pollination, inflorescence, leaf
40 – 56 - severe damage on crown
> 65 - severe damage on whole plants
5. Soil Requirement
* pH – range tolerated by plant: 5.0-7.5 – optimum pH for
field crops; cassava, sweet potato and some new
strains of peanut, soybean, cowpea and corn = 4.3 –
5.0 (tolerance)
* Soil fertility – different type of plants requires specific
nutrients (16 to 17 essential elements; macro and
micro elements)
* Organic matter – indicator of N fertility (> 2%)
* Adaptation to problem soils – saline, acid soils, etc.
6. Biological considerations (involves living organisms)
* Resistance/susceptibility to pests and diseases.
* Cropping pattern that is suited
* Production practices in the area
7. Socioeconomic/cultural considerations (factors
involving people and resources)
* Labor requirement – whole
production systems * Production volume – demand and
 8. Environmental Factors : Anticipated pesticide use, recyclable & non-
recyclable wastes/ residues
9. Other special requirements: Postharvest activities / processing

B. Planting Material Selection and Preparation

 Variety and seed quality are important technological factors that
determine crop productivity
Great advances have been achieved to improved crop performance through
the collaborative efforts of International Agricultural Centers and National
Research Organizations
Modern varieties have acquired the plant architecture that makes the plant
more efficient in the production of economic yield.
a. Have built-in multiple resistance factors against pests and diseases
b. Incorporated with genes to provide tolerance to adverse or stress
conditions
c. Infused with genetic factor which enhance the quality of farm product
d. Hybrid technology (F1 hybrid seeds in rice, corn and many other
crops) which provide 15-25% added yield. Ex. Peoples Republic of
China – grow 18 M of F1 hybrid rice. Philippines – 15% of total
hectarage is grown to F1 hybrid maize
Hybrid Rice Technology
 Develop in China
 Yuan Longpin – Father of Hybrid Rice
 First used in 1976; by 1984 – 50% of the area planted to rice is
occupied by hybrid rice; increase internal rice production
and enable the country to reduce area assigned to rice in
favor of other production activity
 Current production area for HR = 440 million mu (29M ha) with
average production output of 6.3 -7.2 tons/ha
 China released 2nd generation super hybrid rice in 2006 with
average yield of 9 tons/ha
 By 2012 the 3rd generation super hybrid rice will be released
with a potential yield of 13.5 tons/ha
Hybrid Rice Technology
 Large scale production of Hybrid Rice Outside China
1992 – Vietnam followed by India, Bangladesh, Myanmar and the
Philippines
 By 2000 area planted to HR = 300,000 ha in Vietnam; 100,000
in India; several hundreds of hectare in Bangladesh, Myanmar
and the Philippines
 In the Philippines: in 2000 The Phil-China Joint Project on
Hybrid Rice Technology was established ; Phil-Sino Center for
Agricultural Technology (PhilSCAT); located in CLSU, Muňoz,
Nueva Ecija with Prof. Chang Jianli and Dr. Romeo V. Gabino as
Co-Directors: US$100million credit loan
 50 Chinese HR tested and 33 were selected
 By 2013, Phil will expand its hybrid rice production area to
500,000 to 700,000 from the current 375,000 ha
Hybrid Rice Technology
 1994 – first hybrid rice variety released in the Philippines PSB
Rc 26H or Magat; minimal adoption rate
 1997 – PSB Rc 72H or Mestizo was released; CXRH05,
produce by CargillPhils. Inc. – first HR released by
private sector
 2001 –nationwide production of hybrid rice was launched
through GMA Rice; 5-6% adoption rate due to subsidy
 Bigante HR released by private sector in 2004 using IRRI-
based parental lines
 M20 (NSIC Rc 204H) – first two line hybrid produced, requires
cool temp to produce A-Line
 Method of Producing Hybrid Rice Seeds
a. Three line system (A-line, B-line, & R-line)
b. Two line system (A-line x with any fertile varieties)
c. One line system (converting Rice hybrid in an apomictic version,
futuristic)
 Philippines largest importer of rice but 3rd exporter of HR seeds after China
and India through SL Agritech Corp. (Pvt Co., 2007)
Release of IRRI Hybrids in Different Countries (1994-2005)

IRRI Hybrid Released as Country Year released

IR64610H MGR-1 India 1994
IR64611H KRH-1 India 1994

IR64616H Magat Philippines 1994

IR65489H DRRH-1 India 1996

IR68284H Mestizo 1 Philippines 1997
IR69690H Sahyadri India 1998
IR69690H HYT-57 Vietnam 1999

IR69690H BRRI Dhan Hybrid 1 Bangladesh 2001

IR69690H Rokan Indonesia 2002
IR75207H Mestizo 2 Philippines 2002
IR75217H Mestizo 3 Philippines 2002
IR78386H Mestizo 7 Philippines 2005
 e. Success in plant breeding in meeting the future need id dependent
on how man can conserve his arsenal of gene sources.
f. Advances in biotechnology have also sharpened and widened man’s
capability to manipulate genes and use them to their advantage.
1. Types of Planting Materials
a. Seed – all grain crops, legumes, vegetable crops, fiber crops, and
forage grasses.
– it is a mature ovule that composed of the seedcoat, outer
covering; endosperm, food for the growing embryo; and embryo,
the rudimentary plant contained in a seed, usually made up of
hypocotyl, radicle, plumule, and cotyledons
Formation of seed starts with:
* plant gametogenesis – production of male and female gametes
* microsporogenesis – the process of gamete formation in the
male part of the flower (anther) resulting in the production
of spores called pollen grains.
* megasporogenesis – gametogenesis in the female part of the
flower resulting in the formation of reproductive cell called
embryo sacs.
* double fertilization – two fertilization process occurred
simultaneously: 1) formation of the embryo = egg + sperm cell (2n)
2) development of endosperm = 2 polar nuclei + sperm cell (3n)
Seed category based on the initial moisture content:
1. Recalcitrant seeds - are seeds that do not survive drying and
freezing during storage. Cannot resist the effects of drying or
temperatures less than 10° C; thus, they cannot be stored for
long periods because they can lose their viability. Plants that
produce recalcitrant seeds include avocado, mango, lychee,
some horticultural trees, and several plants used in traditional
medicine.
2. Orthodox seeds - are seeds which will survive from drying and/or
freezing during storage. Ex. cereals, legumes and others
Classes of seeds based on genetic purity
1. Breeder seeds - produced and handled only by a plant breeder: purity is
very high
2. Foundation seeds – progeny of breeder seeds; handled in such a way as to
maintain its genetic purity and identity.
3. Registered seeds – progeny of foundation seeds; handled in such a way to
maintain its genetic purity and identity.
4. Certified seeds – progeny of registered or foundation seeds handled in such
a way to maintain its genetic purity and identity; reproduction
is through certified seed growers.
5. Good seeds – progeny of certified seeds not mixed with other varieties
6. Unclassified seeds – kind of seeds that does not belong to any of the above category
 b. Vegetative planting materials (Fig. 1):
1. stem cuttings (mature stems with nodes and internodes. Ex.
sugarcane (stalk), cassava (stem), sweet potato (vine),
forage grasses
2. Tuber – underground stem with nodes or “bud eye” (white
potato)
3. Corm (underground solid stems that contains nodes and
internodes cut into several pieces) – taro and abaca
4. Rhizome – (subterranean root like stem that have
roots in lower portion and shoot in the upper portion) – ginger and
ramie
5. Slips (leafy shoots originating from axillary buds borne at the
base of the plant or fruit) – pineapple
6. suckers (adventitious roots that arise from under ground
stem) – abaca, anthurium
7. bulbs -a specialized storage organ (usually underground)
composed of a compressed stem enclosed by
fleshy or papery leaves or leaf bases. Ex. Onion,
garlic
Bulb pseudobulb corm

stolon

bud eye

Tuber Rhizome stolon

runner

Fig. 1. Modified stems used as planting materials

 c. Basis of selection of species/varieties to be planted:
a. Market demand
b. Suitability of the area for growing
c. Yield quantity and quality
d. Tolerance to pest and disease
e. Tolerance to environmental stresses
f. Frmer’s preference
Seed Storage:
1. To prolong viability, seed should be stored dry at 12 to 14% MC in
airtight container (sealed bottles, cans, gunny sacks lined with thick
polyethylene plastic.
2. Apply desiccants to the container to prevent moisture absorption by
the seeds.
Pre-germination Treatment:
1. Treat seed with fungicide as protectant against fungal diseases
which attack plants at seedling stage.
* Vegetables and Legumes – arasan, captan, spergon, semesan
* Corn seed – metalaxyl (Apron 38 SD), protection against downy
mildew (discovered by Dr. Ofelio Exconde). Technological
breakthrough for the corn industry in the Philippines
 2. Vernalization or cold treatment to enhance germination and early
flowering. Example corms of gladioli. GA3 can be used to substitute
vernalization by soaking corms of gladioli in 500 to 2,500
ppm solutions for 12 hours.

3. Seed inoculations: legumes – commercial inoculant (Rhizobia),

corn – bacteria from talahib, as Bio-N, Myco Vam
4. Preparation of Vegetative Planting Materials
a. Cassava – mature stem, 7 months old, 20-25 cm length.
Cut stalk will last up to 5 months if properly stored.
b. Sugarcane – top portion of the stalk (lalas, patdan) with at
least 3 nodes
c. Sweet potato– vine cuttings 25 to 30 cm from the tip portion
d. White potato – tuber cut into seed pieces each having buds,
treated with fungicide or small tubers produced by
certified potato growers like NOMIARC so that no
cutting will be done and seed transport is easy.
II. Land Preparation
Definition of Terms
Tillage – a general term referring to manual or mechanical soil stirring
actions necessary for the proper establishment and growth of
crops
Tillage systems – refers to the nature and sequence of tillage operations in
preparing a seedbed for planting
Primary tillage – type of tillage that inverts, cuts or shatters the soil to a
depth of 15-36cm, leaving the soil rough
Secondary tillage – tillage operation that follow primary tillage with the purpose
of preparing the final seedbed for planting, seedling
establishment and weed control
Conventional tillage – combined primary and secondary tillage operations
normally done in preparing a seedbed for a specific crops in a given
geographical locations
Conservation tillage – any tillage system that reduces loss of soil or water
compared to clean tillage
Minimum tillage – the amount of tillage required to create proper soil conditions
for seed germination and seedling establishment
Clean tillage – cultivation of a field to cover all plant residues and to prevent
the growth of all vegetation except the intended crop
Mulch Tillage – soil tillage which employ plant residues or other materials to
cover the ground surface
Land Preparation is
Done in accordance with the requirements of wetland and dry land systems
Wetland system – plowing and harrowing done under submerged or flooded
conditions = soil is puddle
Upland system - plowing and harrowing is done under dry (moist) condition,
soil is “non-puddled”
Contrasting Features in terms of the following:
a. Physical feature of the soil
Lowland Upland
1. flooding breaks soil clods into 1. no flooding is involved;
smaller aggregates & particles, tillage is convenient
penetration resistance in plowing is reduced
 Lowland Upland
2. Puddling destroys soil 2. Soil structure and granulations
structure and particles are maintained
are densely packed and
soil is compacted
3. Macropores are lost and 3. Macropores and micropores
only micropores prevail; are maintained when dried,
soil density is increased
when the soil dry
4. Puddling results in high 4. Downward movement of water is
soil water retention capacity. normal and water drains easily.
Percolation or downward Hard pan also develops which
movement is sharply prevents good drainage
decreased by a factor of 100
to 1000 as compared to flooded
but unpuddled soils.
 Lowland Dryland
* Sandy soils with high
permeability when puddled
results in reduced water loss
and leaching.

* Plow sole or hardpan

(impermeable layer) further
reduces water losses 5. Tillage is easy

5. Puddled soils when dried

become denser, harder &

structureless.

* tillage w/out water

submergence is difficult
B. Chemical Changes (de Datta, 1981)
Lowland Dryland
1. Dry, well-aerated soil throughout
1.“oxidized” layer about 1 cm
the root zone. Aerobic organisms
thick exist which received
abound
oxygen and host aerobic
organisms
2. No reduced layer unless the soil is
2. “reduced” zone next to poorly drained
oxidized layer (due to
submergence) which is
occupied by plant roots
a. Molecular oxygen is present in
a. molecular oxygen is sufficient quantity
depleted
b. Solely anaerobic b. Aerobic organisms abound
organisms only exist
c. decrease “redox” c. Redox potential (Eh) is high
potential and takes a positive value
B. Chemical Changes
Lowland Dryland
d. Increase in pH for acid soils
d. Soil pH is stable at either the low
and decrease in pH for calcareous or high side
soil when submerged;
convergence to pH 6 and 7
e. Reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+
and Mn4+ to Mn2+ and increased e. Iron and Mn in the unreduced
supply form and not readily unavailable
f. Reduction of NO3- and NO2- to
N2 and N2O (denitrification, a f. Nitrification of NH4+ to NO3- but
disadvantage)
none or little denitrification

g. Reduction of SO4= to S=
h. Increase in supply and g. No reduction of SO4=
availability of N.
h. Microorganisms are biologically
active and utilized a lot of N
B. Chemical Changes
Lowland Dryland

i. Increase availability of i. Less availability of such

P, K, Si, & Mo elements to plants
j. Decrease concentration j. Availability of copper and
of water-soluble zinc is not affected
zinc and copper
k. Generation of nitrous
k. Generation of CO2, oxide and methane is
nitrous oxide, and much less but much of
methane (CH4) CO2 is generated by
and toxic reduction organic matter
products such as decomposition under an
organic acids oxygenated dryland
(acetic, butyric, system
formic, propionic
and lactic) and
hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
I. Land Preparation for Lowland System (Lowland Rice)
 Three Systems of Land Preparation
a) The land is generally flooded from land preparation and throughout the
growing period and is only drained prior to harvesting
b) Initial tillage is performed before flooding (usually by tractor operation)
while subsequent operations of harrowing-puddling and leveling are done
in submerge or wet state
c) The land is prepared and sown to seeds in dry conditions (as in upland
areas) and is flooded only after seed germination and all throughout the
growing season.

A. Land Preparation under Submerged Conditions

* This requires at least one plowing, two harrowing and one leveling
operation, all done in a muddy or puddled conditions
* Water Requirements to soak up the land:
- 725 mm for wet seasons, it will take about 2 months to
accumulate adequate amounts of water from natural rainfall.
- 470 mm for dry season, less water is needed because
the land still holds much moisture from the previous wet
season.
* Power Sources and Farm Implements:
- Traditional system – the source of power is the carabao or
water buffalo (good temperament and easily manageable
* Trained early for draft work- 2-3 yrs. It can perform
satisfactorily for 15 to 17 years.
* It can provide draft power of 0.5 to 1.3 hp (500kgwt male)
* The implements for tillage: moldboard plow (requires 130km of
walking), comb-tooth harrow (suyod) with a handle bar and leveler
* Hand tractor (wetland operation): engine power: 3 hp to 16 hp;
where 1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb/min
√ single-axle walking or pedestrian tractors (5-10 brake hp) used
for draft work such as pulling a plow or harrow or a trailer.
√ double-axle pedestrian tractors (8 to 15 hp). One axle propel the
machine from the front while the rear axle serves as a rotary
tiller. Also equipped for plowing. Ex. Yanmar, Iseki and Kubota
hand tractors
√ floating rotary tillers for wetland tillage – can do tilling, puddling
and leveling where water supply is plentiful (marshy areas). Ex.
SV-Agro turtle power- made in Ilolilo, IRRI HT-1 Hydro-tiller, up
to 2 hectare/day and Aqua-Bug hydro-tiller
 * Labor requirements:
Land prep for 1 ha using
a) draft animal = 20 man-days
b) 4-6 hp diesel or 5-8 hp gasoline power tiller=
0.61liter/hr of diesel and 0.86 liter/hr gasoline,
respectively and field capacity is 1 to 1 ½ ha
per 8hr day of plowing and harrowing operations
Custom or contracted land preparation consisting of one
rotavation, 2 harrowings and one leveling in CMU
P3,500-P4,000

Main Advantages (Wetland system):

1. Good weed control
2. Increase water retention capacity of the soil

Disadvantages:
1. Delay in planting the rice crop and the limitation of having a
second crop
2. Puddling renders the soil difficult for fast tillage for a second crop
B. Land Preparation in the Dry Condition
* Plowing is done in the dry condition (non-flooded) usually by tractor
operation but the subsequent harrowings and puddling and leveling
are done under flooded conditions. This system is appropriate for
light textured soil and end result is similar to letter A but preparation is
done within a shorter period of time.

C. Dryland Tillage for Dry-seeded Rice (DSR) Cultivation

1. Plowing and harrowing operations are done in dry or non-puddled state of
the soil, same as in upland field preparation. Direct seeding is
employed and early rains germinate the seeds. Water is introduced after
seedling establishment just like in the ordinary lowland rice culture
This practice is common in rainfed areas of Urbiztondo and adjoining
municipalities in Pangasinan.
2. Advantages
a. early crop establishment and possibilities for second crop like
mungo or peanuts
b. Water used for soaking and puddling is conserved and utilized for
crop growth instead
c. Labor associated for with land preparation and transplanting is
greatly reduced
d. Soil structure is not disturbed and turn-around tillage is
manageable
3. Disadvantages:
a. Draft power requirement is high and tractor operation may be
required
b. Weed control at the early stages of seedling establishment is
critical
c. Percolation and seepage losses of water are high during crop
growth
II. Land Preparation for Upland Condition/ Dryland System
Purpose of Tillage:
1. To develop a suitable soil structure for a) easy root development b) improve
the infiltration of water and internal drainage c) enhance soil aeration
2. To incorporate stubbles and weeds into the soil
3. Kill hibernating pests in the soil
4. Erosion control
Operation involved in land preparation:
a. Plowing – done only once but a second one may be necessary.
purpose:
a.1. To cut soils into “furrow slices”
a.2. To partly pulverize the soil (still in cloddy condition)
a.3. To incorporate weeds and stubble underneath the soil
b. Harrowing done 2-3 times
Purpose:
b.1. To pulverize the clods left after plowing
 b.2. To level the field
b.3. To compact the soil to a certain degree; and
b.4. To destroy weeds as they start to grow.
c. The number of plowing and harrowing is dependent on:
c.1. Soil types
c.2. Weed density
c.3. Moisture content
c.4. Crop to be grown: seed crop require a better seedbed
than crops normally planted by cuttings
c.5. An interval of 2 to 7 days between operations is observed
to effect better weed control
c.6 Over-pulverization should be avoided as it causes
formation of hard surface crust after heavy rain.
d. Use of rotary tillers (rota-tilling or rotavating). Done after one
plowing or is used as substitute to plowing in tilling light soils and
where minimum tillage is practiced.
 Rotary tillers are tractor mounted. Not usually used in stony soil
because of high cost of tire replacement and excessive machine wear.

Characteristics of a Well-Prepared Upland Field

1. Granular, mellow yet compact enough so that seed are in close contact with
the soil for better germinations
2. Free of trash and vegetations
3. Field is level, with minimum depressions where water may accumulate

Soil Moisture and Upland Preparation

1. Tilling soil when it is too dry increases power requirements and the likelihood
of implement breakage
2. Tilling soil when wet promotes soil compaction, reduces soil granulation,
lengthens land preparation
3. The ideal moisture content is at a level below field capacity (MC after soil
has been saturated and allowed to drain for 1 to 3 days).
Practical indicators of ideal soil moisture:
1. Soil should slide freely from the moldboard
2. Soil is friable and easily breaks
3. Soil freshly cut surface should not glisten with moisture

TILLAGE EQUIPMENTS FOR UPLAND OPERATIONS

1. Carabao or cow or bullock drawn:
a. Moldboard plow which cuts at a depth of 9.8 to 15.2 cm;
b. Native spike tooth harrow or “calmot” either made of bamboo (15
stumps, 1m long with 40 to 50 teeth) or steel cross bars
2. Hand tractor drawn equipment:
a. Moldboard plow or disc plow b. rotavator for rota-tilling
3. Tractor (4-wheeled) mounted implements at rear three-point hitches
powered by hydraulic lift devices
a. Moldboard plows which cuts, inverts and breaks furrow slices and
turns under surface weeds, crop residues and trash. Depth of cut
ranges from 15 to 30 cm.
b. Disc plows which cuts without inversion of furrow slice. The disc
rotates and friction is reduced thereby requiring less draft power.
The depth of cut is shallower at 15 to 20 cm. More effective in tilling
hard ground or newly open land where small matted roots are
plentiful
c. Disc harrows – the front edge of the discs cuts the soil and crop
residues while the trailing edge can raise soil and push it to one
side
d. Heavy duty “disc plow and harrow” with 18 blades. One pass of this
equipment represent the combination work of plowing and
harrowing. Used to till light textured soil.
e. Rotavator – to initially cut the soil and pulverize it by centrifugal
forces. Depth of cuts ranges from 10 to 15 cm.
f. Mower or flail type of grass cutter – for cutting into small pieces
standing stubbles.
g. Subsoiler – used for breaking deep hard pans or compacted layers
of soil to improve internal drainage. Penetration is 51 to 91 cm.
h. Furrower or ridger – used for setting furrows where planting is done
manually; used as ridger to create multiridges or wider beds for
planting vegetable, peanuts or corn specially for irrigated farming.
Sources of Power for Upland Tillage
1. Draft animal – carabao, ox, bullock and cow (36-72 man hour/ha)
2. hand tractor – 6 hp hand tractor will require 8.8 to 12.5 machine
hour/hectare
3. Four-wheeled tractors – all purpose machine (11-14 hrs/ha)

III. Planting Methods

Methods Based on Traditional Practices:
1. Direct seeding of the field:
- Broadcast used by farmers to plant mungo after rice; upland and
lowland rice may also be broadcasted
- Drilling seeds in rows – Hill methods within rows; and
- Dibbling seeds of secondary crops on unplowed paddy field after the
primary rice crops.
2. Transplanted – done for crops like lowland rice, vegetables and tobacco.
Seeds are planted in well prepared seed bed or seed boxes.
Seedlings are nursed for sometimes before they are transplanted to the
final area.
Advantages: a) less wastage of valuable seeds b) seedlings are more
properly cared for; c) plant stay in the field for shorter period of time to
 Planting Methods for Lowland Rice
1. Transplanting. Suitable for rainfed (“palagad”) or adequately irrigated
lowlands
Advantages:
a) Plants have headstart in growth over weeds
b) the crop stays for a shorter time in the field;
c) ease in weeding operations
Methods of Raising Seedlings:
1.1. Wetbed method. Puddled 1 m to 1.5 m wide and of any
convenient length. Total of 400 sq. m. to sow a palay seeds of
50kg to plant a hectare area. The area is fertilized with 4 kg 14-14-
14. Seeds are pre-germinated ( 24 hrs. of soaking and 24-48 hrs.
of incubation). Sow 1 kg of pre-germinated seeds per 10 sq. m.
bed. Seedlings are continuously irrigated and protected from pest
and diseases. Seedlings are ready for transplanting in 25 to 30
days.
1.2. Dapog Method. Pre-germinated seeds are sown on cement or
puddled soil covered with banana leaves, plastic sheet or heavy
coarse paper. 60 kg sown in 40sq.m. plot good foe one hectare.
Seedlings are ready for transplanting in 10-14 days.
 1.3 Dry-bed method. Applicable in rainfed areas where frequency and
amount of rainfall are unpredictable during the planting season.
-The seedbed is 1.5 m at any convenient length.
-Fifty (50) kg of seed are sown in 500 sq.m. area to plant a
hectare.
-The bed is not submerged but keep moist for most of
the time. -Seedlings are ready for planting in 20 to 42 days.
Transplanting Distances:
* square method – 18 x 18 to 25 x 25 m2 with 2 -3 ordinary
seedlings or 4-6 dapog raised seedlings per hill.
- Most common method.
* Wide rows, closer hills – 40 cm x 5 cm, one seedling per hill or 30
cm x 13 cm with 2 seedlings/hill
– employed where azolla culture between the rows is intended
* Double row method – alternation of 20 cm and 40 cm row spacing
with hills 10 cm apart and 2 seedlings/hill.
Transplanting is done by a) team of planters (pakyaw basis, P4000/ha)
or b) mechanical planters either hand-pushed or tractor mounted.
This type of planting is applicable if the paddy is leveled very well.
Otherwise, there will be many skips
 2. Direct Seeding on Puddled Field.
Advantages: Less labor requirement in planting.
Disadvantage: Crop is vulnerable to weed problems.
Use of pre-emergence herbicide is necessary. Seeds
to be planted are pre-germinated. Seed
requirement – 100 to 125 kg/ha Methods:
a)
Broadcasting. Pre-germinated seeds are broadcasted evenly in a
well-prepared paddy. No specific distance. Accompanied by the application
of pre-emergence herbicides. b) Drilling the pre-
germinated seeds in rows at 25 to 30 cm spacing. Mechanical
implement like “drum seeder” is used. Rate of seeding is low 50 to
100 kg/ha. Better weed control since weeder can be used. c. Dibbling.
Pre-germinated seeds are dibbled in straight rows and in hill at 15cm
x 15cm to 25cm x 25 cm with 5 to 8 seed/hill. Allow cross passing of
rotary weeded. Labor requirement is similar to straight row planting.
3. Dryland seeding of lowland rice. Plowing is done immediately after the
harvesting of the preceding rice crop. Harrowing is done prior to
planting & furrows are laid out using the “lithao” method. Non- germinated
seeds are broadcast, then a spike tooth harrow is passed
 obliquely to the direction of the furrow to dislodge the seeds on the
ridges and bring them into the furrows.
The procedure can be done using “Inverted-T seeder drill in straight
rows.
Advantage of dryland system of seeding:
a) soil structure is maintained in good condition and can be
tilled easier for the second crop.
b) System will allow second crop like mungbean in areas which
normally planted only once

 Planting Methods of Upland Crops (upland rice, corn , legumes)

Basal application of fertilizer is required to boost the growth of seedling
and give them a good head start
Methods:
1. Broadcast sowing of mungbean on tilled or untilled paddy soil.
2. Drilling seeds within the row for upland rice, peanut, sorghum,
soybeans and mungbean using the Inverted-T seeder which can
either be hitched to a tractor or carabao.
3. Seeding seeds in hills within the row. Can be achieved using a
“roller injection planter” with field capacity 6,000 to 16,000 hills/hour
 Planting Methods for Vegetables
* Vegetable seeds are small and expensive. Its germination and
seedling establishment is very low.
* Susceptible to damping-off disease and cricket attack,
hence, they need to be grown first where they can be properly taken
cared for and then transplanted later in the field.
* Transplanting also shorten the duration of the crop in the
field * Raising seedlings is practiced for vegetables like onion, leek,
lettuce, broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, mustard, pechay, Chinese cabbage,
tomato, eggplant, sweet pepper and celery.
* Methods of Growing Transplant:
a) Seedbed Method. The area intended for seedbed should be fully
exposed to the sunlight, thoroughly worked over and surface
sterilized by burning rice straw over or by chemical sterilization with
the use of liquid drench like 40% formaldehyde.
– Row spacing is 5 to 7 cm and within 5 to 7 of row length, 2 to 3
seeds are planted
b) Seed Box Method. Dimension: 50cm x 33cm x 7 cm; seeds grown
close to each other and transferred once to the field by pricking.
Soil medium: equal proportion of sieve sands, composts, and
garden soil.
 - Soil mixture are sterilized by heat or chemical (40% formaldehyde)
- Fertilizer applied: ¾ liter (12-24-12) and 1 liter of 20%
superphosphate for each cubic meter of soil mixture.
- Seeding method employed: “dibble” or “spotting
board” (rows spaced at 7 to 8 cm w/ 2 – 3 seed)
Care of Seedlings:
1. Blocking – done 7-10 days before the seedlings are transplanted in
which the full depth of the soil is cut with a knife into
blocks of 5 cm x 5cm to confine the roots in separate
blocks. Destruction of root systems at transplanting is
minimized.
2. Hardening – a process started at 7 to 10 days before transplanting in
which seedlings are exposed to full sunlight. Water is
gradually reduced as transplanting time draws near. Plants
may suffer temporary wilting and their tissues become
thicker and less succulent but they become hardy and less
prone to wilting after transplanting.
Seedling age ready for transplanting:
pechay and lettuce – 3 weeks,
cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower – 4 to 5 weeks,
tomatoes, pepper, eggplant – 5 to 7 weeks
 * Transplanting should be done late in the afternoon and during cloudy
days.
* Before putting the plant into a hole, put a cup of starter solution
(dissolve 24g of 12-24-12 in 10 liters of water, prepared
before transplanting time)
 Plant Population Density
* To attain maximum yield, plant population densities are adjusted
based on the crops, season of planting and level of soil fertility.
* High density planting gives better result when the fertility level of
the soil is high

* Estimation:
1. Hill method of planting
area
Plant population density = ------------------- x no. of plants/hill
dbr x dbh
ex. dbr = .75 m, dbh = .25 m, one seed/hill, area = 5000 m2
PPD = 5000 m2 x 1
0.75 x 0.25 = 26,667 plants/5000 m2
 2. Drill method of seeding
10,000 sq m/ha
plants/ha = x No. of plants per linear meter
(1m) x (distance bet. rows)
Example:
mungbean drilled at 30 seeds per linear meter and rows are spaced at 50
cm
= 10,000 x 30 plants
1 m x 0.5 m
= 600,000 plants/ha
PPLM = row spacing x recommended population/ha
area/ha
Seed requirement in kg/ha is based on 100% germination. Do simple
germination test before planting in order to adjust the seeding rate.
Adjustment of seeding rate = Recommended seeding rate
Percentage germination
Water Management Soil
Fertility Management Pest
Management
 Harvesting and Other Postharvest Operations
Operations Involve:
Grain crops – harvesting, threshing/shelling, drying, storage and milling
Perishable crops (vegetables and root crops) – further processing is
necessary before the products are sent to the market or placed
in storage.
Tobacco leaves – need curing process
Fiber crops – require fiber extraction

Harvesting: Should be taken in caution to avoid unnecessary harvest losses

in handling the product.
Losses can be incurred at any point from harvesting to processing and
storage. Losses can be in the
form of a) actual grains or product loss b) reduction in quality
and value of the product
Maturity Indices: reckoned from germination or flowering date to crop maturity.
Indicator: 1. change in color of the grains, pods and fruits
2. appearance of senescing foliage and other physical conditions
associated with maturity
Delay in harvesting may result in grain or pod shattering, tough kernel quality of
sweet corn and stringy condition of vegetable products
Harvesting, Handling and Threshing.
* These operations if done manually, are tedious and labor intensive.
In Rice: (MC = 20-25%)
* Done in contract basis with people harvester, who get a 20% share of
the harvests.
* Losses incurred: 5 to 16 % in SEA
Options in harvesting and threshing operations for rice:
1. Manual harvesting using hand tools like sickles (“yatab” & “lingkao”)
2. Mechanical threshing with the use of
a) portable axial-flow threshers
b) separate mechanical harvesting with tractor attached reapers and
mechanical threshing
c) “combine” harvesting in which the machines completes the
operations by cutting, conveying the cut materials into the
threshing unit, threshing, cleaning of threshed material and
conveying the grain to the grain container or into sacks
Types of Mechanical Reaper for Rice:
1. Reapers – simply cut standing grain crops and lay them on the field.
Manual collection is needed.
2. Reaper-windrowers – cut standing grain crops and lay them in
orderly fashion on the field sin rows either in continuous row or
 windrow or into sheaf-sized bundles or gavels: in this manner collection is
convenient and faster.
3. reaper-binders – cut and bind crops into bundles, each
of 1.2 to 1.5 kg of fresh paddy, and lay the stalk bundles
on the ground for easy collection.
4. stripper-harvesters – employ a stripper rotor that spins
in the crop as the machine moves forward and combs or strips the
grain from the crop with some straw into a collection container. TC 800
thresher/cleaner (2nd component) completes the job of threshing and
cleaning while the harvester is in motion
Axial flow thresher used in rice can also be used in sorghum,
mungbean and soybeans
Combine harvesters can also be used in some other crops
particularly corn.

Corn: Indicator of maturity: husk turns to brown, appearance of black layer,

reduce moisture content on seeds (25-30%).
Harvesting : * Manual hand picking (50-80 man-hours)
* mechanical harvesting (2-3.5 machine hours/ha)
Shelling can be manual (400-600 man-hours) or mechanical
(2,500kg/hr, 5hp engine, 3 drums) or( 5,000kg/hr, 16 hp engine)
(For more information on other crops read “The Science and Practice of
DRYING:
* The transfer of heat by converting the water in the grain to vapor and
transferring it to the atmosphere
* Important to prevent the growth of molds and respiration process that
causes spoilage of grains in storage.
Cereal crops – reduced to 14% for safe storage
Peanuts and soybeans – moisture content should lower than 14% to
prevent grains from infections with Aspergillus flavus, produces
aflatoxin. *
Commenced 12 hours and not later than 24 hours after harvesting
* Common Methods of Drying
1. Sundrying: 2-3 days to bring 24% to 14% MC. Applicable to any
annual crops
2. Heated air-drying by convection principles: for seed purposes, hot
air should be kept at 43oC or 100oF; for food consumption – 65oC or
149oF
STORAGE:
* Moisture content of grains in storage can be maintain at 13-14% MC
provided the RH is 70% or lower
Types of Storage Structures:
1. Farm house storage in sacks or large bamboo baskets
2. Granary
3. Warehouse storage
4. Bulk storage using steel bins and concrete silos
RICE MILLING:
Principles:
1. Removal of the outer covering, the hush or hull, which involve
dehusking or dehulling process.
2. The removal of pericarp and testa and the aleurone or bran layer
and germ involving the “whitening or polishing process.
Milling recovery – minimum of 62% and should be much higher at 68% or over
Types of Mill Used in The Philippines:
1. Kiskisan or one-pass mill
2. Improved village type rice mill or a “2-pass” mill
3. “Cono” rice mill, a multi-pass rice milling machine
4. Modern rice mill (separate dehulling process and 4 stages of the
whitening process)
5. Micromill, a household model, milling rate = 50 to 75kg/hr, milling
recovery = 60 to 67%. Can be fabricated for the use of other crops
like corn, soybean, mungbean and coffee
CORN MILLING: Corn grains are milled for food, feed and industrial uses
1. Corn for feed = milled using hammer mills that grind the shelled corn
into grits for animal feed. By products = bran and middlings (also
used as feed components.
2. Corn for food = turned into corn grits by the use of a corn grinder or
roller-type mill. Main products = corn grits, flour, bran and germ

3. Corn for industrial uses = milled using the “wet” process of milling
(corn is wetted to form a “steep”, which then undergoes a series of
further milling, filtration, centrifuging, and drying to separate the grain
components into various industrial products.

The products:
a) pure starch
b) corn oil extracted from the germ
c) defatted corn germ meal with 20% protein and 7% fat
d) gluten meal with 40% protein, 2.5 fat and
e) gluten feed with 23 % protein and 2.5% fat
 Processing and Storage of Vegetables:
Vegetables after harvesting Central Collection/Packing House

Trimming, cleaning, sorting

Transport Packages: flexible, semi-rigid into sizes and packing
or rigid structures

Flexible Packages for bulky Local Market Outlet

commodities like burlap sacks, mesh or
net bags and polyethylene bags (with
breather holes) Techniques to prolong shelf-life &
freshness of Vegetables:
Semi-rigid to rigid containers for soft 1. “Evaporative Cooling” thru
commodities: bamboo baskets lined with sprinkling of water on leafy
banana leaves, news paper material or vegetables and storage in shelves
straw as shock absorber; wooden crates inside a wet cloth tent
& boxes with open spaces at the sides 2. Cold Storage (Low temp retard
and bottom respiration and microbial growth)
Right Temp for tropical veggies =
12oC
Processing and Storage of Other Crops
1. Bast Fiber Crops (kenaf and Jute). Bark are extracted by:
a) retting (9 to 20 days) b) decorticating machine
2. Root crops.
Cassava roots – short shelf-life, not more than 48 hours and should be utilized
or processed immediately after harvest.
Prolonging the shelf-life:
a) piling of roots on bed of straw placed on well-drained ground
and covering the pile with more straw and soil; and
b) packing the roots in boxes covered with moist sawdust Uses: a) as food
b) as animal
feed (chips and pellets) c) industrial starch
( MSG, food seasoning and as binder in food, textile, plywood and
pharmaceuticals), ethyl alcohol and sugar derivatives like dextrose for
medical use. Sweet Potato –last for if
curing is done before storage Curing - is the process of allowing self-
healing bruised and skinned of areas of the roots. Takes 7 to 14 days at
temperatures of 27 to 30oC and RH of 85 to 90% Uses: As food and feeds (rich
in minerals Vit A & C) Sweet potato starch- made into
noodles, industrial binders, glucose and alcohol
3. Sugarcane.
* Premature or over-mature harvesting of stalks and burning of canes
results to significant reduction in tonnage and sucrose yield.
* Cutting of basal stalks leaves 10 to 12 cm of stumps = loss of 5
piculs of sugar/ha (1 picul = 63.25 kg).
* Harvested canes should be milled within 24 hours. Delayed for 2 to 6
days, results to significant losses of sucrose through inversion.
Major Products:
sugar (raw or refined), source of alcohol.

By-Products:
a) bagasse (fibrous materials used for fuel in the mill or converted into
pulp paper, rayon, particle board and furfural or soil conditioner),
b) molasses (liquid syrup used in the production of alcohol, sucro-
chemicals [ethylchloride, ethyl ether, ethylene and acetaldehyde],
fertilizer and animal feed); and
c) filter cake or mudpress (consists of soil, dirts, waxes, and other
materials that go with the stalks. Used as fertilizer and fuel when
dried.)
4. Tobacco. Tobacco leaves – mature in 60 to 65 days after crop transplanting.
Lower leaves first to mature (turn pale green with edges becoming
yellow).
Mature leaves ripen and turn yellow at the rate of 2 to 3 leaves/week.
A total of 25 to 27 leaves harvested/ plant.
Mature leaves of tobacco – have high sugar content and reduced
amount of starch and nitrogen. Fully-
expanded immature leaves = rich in starch and nitrogenous
organic compounds. Over-
maturation of leaves = causes a reduction in sugar content. Hence, timing
in harvesting should be observed to preserved the rich yellow color and high
sugar content. Tobacco leaves after harvesting will further undergo curing, to
accentuate color changes and transformation of starch and carbohydrates
into simple sugar Methods of Tobacco Curing:
1. air-curing in shade 2. sun-curing 3. flue-
curing in a barn, and 4. bulk-curing. The first two methods employed for
native tobacco while the last two are applicable to bright leaf Virginia
tobacco. Stages in curing:
a) yellowing, the changing of green color of the leaf to yellow
b) fixing the yellow color; and
c) completing the crying process