Lect-5 Furnace
Lect-5 Furnace
Lect-5 Furnace
Refinery processing is basically a fact rested upon effective distillation and condensation.
Before the introduction of pipe still heaters (1918) into refinery operations, the direct heating
stills (convective type) were used for all heating operations.
with these inescapable difficulties, the refinery could not be magnified or utilized for high
capacities at short notice, thus, one has to be content with small refinery sizes.
Pipe still heaters are different from old still, heaters in one way ; the radiant section is
separated from convection section.
Heat transfer in radiant section as high as 70%. The stack losses and heater losses are brought
down to 12% and 5% respectively followed by a close response to control.
Pipe Still Heaters
Pipe heaters can be conveniently categorised into two types:
Horizontal type
Vertical type
The horizontal type heater usually means a box type heater with the tubes running horizontally
along the walls.
Cylindrical heaters require less plot space and are usually less expensive. They also shave
better radiant symmetry than the horizontal type.
Horizontal box types are preferred for crude oil heaters, although vertical cylindrical heaters
have been used in this service.
Vacuum unit heaters should have horizontal tubes to eliminate the static head pressure at the
bottom of vertical tubes and to reduce the possibility of two-phase slugging in the large exit
tubes.
Pipe Still Heaters
Horizontal Type
Pipe Still Heaters
Vertical Type
Pipe Still Heaters
Codes and Standards
Fired heaters have a “live” source of energy. That is, they use a flammable material in order to
impart heat energy to a process stream.
Codes and standards directly applicable to fired heaters are listed below.
Refinery process engineers are seldom if ever required to thermal rate a fired heater or indeed
check the thermal rating.
This is a procedure that falls in the realm of specialist mechanical engineers with extensive
experience in heater design and fabrication.
Process engineers are however required to specify the equipment so that it can be designed
and installed to meet the requirements of the process heat balance.
A fired heater is essentially a heat exchanger in which most of the heat is transferred by
radiation instead of by convection and conduction.
Rating involves a heat balance between the heat releasing and heat absorbing streams, and a
rate relationship.
Pipe Still Heaters
Heat flux
Heat flux is the rate of heat transmission through the tubes into the process fluid.
The maximum film temperature and tube metal temperature are a function of heat flux and
the inside film heat transfer coefficient.
The heat flux varies around the circumference of the tube, being a maximum on the side facing
the firebox.
The value depends upon the sum of the heat received directly from the firebox radiation and
the heat re-radiated from the refractory.
Single fired process heaters are usually specified for a maximum average heat flux of 10,000–
12,000 Btu/hr sq-ft. The maximum point heat flux is about 1.8 times greater.
Double fired heaters are usually specified for about 13,500 × 18,000 Btu/hr sq-ft average heat
flux with the maximum point flux being about 1.2 times greater.
Pipe Still Heaters
Heater efficiency
The efficiency of a fired heater is the ratio of the heat absorbed by the process fluid to the heat
released by combustion of the fuel expressed as a percentage.
Heat release may be based on the lower heating value (LHV) of the fuel or higher heating value
(HHV).
The temperature of the stack gas is determined by the temperature of the incoming process
fluid unless an air preheater is used.
Pipe Still Heaters
The lowest stack temperature that can be used is determined by the dew point of the stack
gases.
The loss to flue gas is expressed as a percentage of the total heat of combustion available from
the fuel.
Typically excess air for efficiency guarantees is 20% when firing fuel gas and 30% when firing
oil.
Heat loss from the setting, called radiation loss, is about 11/2 to 2% of the heat release.
Very high — 90%+. Large boilers and process heaters with air pre-heaters.
High — 85%. Large heaters with low process inlet temperatures and/or air pre-heaters.
Usual — 70–80%.
Low — 60% and less. All radiant.
Pipe Still Heaters
The radiant section design is based upon Stefan-Boltzman equation given as :
QF = 4.88X10-8 [ TA4-TB4 ]
This equation enables one to judge the amount of heat transfer as proportional to the
difference of fourth power of temperature of the heat generating body and the receiving body.
This differs very much from convection and conduction, where heat transfer is proportional to
gradient only i.e. the temperature difference of the operating levels.
Pipe Still Heaters
However, here the properties of material receiving the radiation are also important.
The properties are not like conductivity or heat transfer coefficient, as intended in other heat
transfers, but the visible color of the material only.
As black body absorbs all the radiation that falls on it, its emissivity is expressed as unity and other
bodies (colored) graded. accordingly.
The angle of vision or in other words, the surface which can directly see the flame is also very much
important.
Pipe Still Heaters
CONSIDERATIONS FOR DESIGNING RADIANT SECTION
1. Heat duty
Different heat transfer rates are necessary for different types of operations.
Heating rates are specified either on the basis of projected area of tube or outside surface area of
tube.
Care should be excercised not to exceed the heat density either on surface of the tube or in furnace.
Heat Duties of various operations
Pipe Still Heaters
2. Air fuel ratio
Fuel in radiant section does another duty above the normal heating duty, i.e. it assists radiant heat
transfer owing to the presence of tri or multi molecular gases.
The ratio of water vapor to carbon dioxide usually depends upon the air fuel ratio.
Excess of air fuel ratio no doubt decreases the attainable maximum temperature, but increases the
partial pressure of carbon dioxide and water vapor, hence increases heat transfer.
Consequently a fuel rich in hydrogen gives better radiant heat transfer due to the formation of water
vapor after combustion.
Pipe Still Heaters
3 Tube spacing
Generally tubes are placed in one or two rows in radiant section. More than two rows are not opted
due to the following reasons :
To clarify further, number of rows bring about blanket-effect and all the tubes cannot see the flame ;
hence a single row is even regarded as sufficient.
The spacing of two tubes is measured by center to center distance. Experimental studies
showed that when the tubes were spaced at larger distances, the heat transfer was more. In general,
in the furnace, the tubes are spaced at a distance of 2 to 3.5 times outside diameter (OD) of the tubes
Pipe Still Heaters
4 Over Burdened tubes
Some of the tubes receive heat from radiation as well as from convection, as the gases pass over
this bank of tubes.
This way the tubes receive more heat than, they can bear or is required. Such over heating
exacerbates coke formation and for this reason, these tubes are utilised for superheating purposes.
The net amount of heat transfer in radiant section is dependant upon the available temperature of the
gases. Modem fur races extract 60-70% of the net heat available, in radiant section alone.
So the temperature of the gases leaving the radiant section has to be calculated from heat balance.
Pipe Still Heaters
6 Combustion volume
Radiant section volume depends upon the fuel-air ratio. However, it is customary to express in terms
of heat release.
For moderate heating rates, furnace volume of one cubic meter is required for 28,000 Kcals (11.7X10 4
Kjoules) heat release per hour.
For severe operations heat density may exceed this rate upto two times.
For a satisfactory design, the following schedule of heat distribution may be employed
Convection heat transfer - 30-35%
Radiant heat transfer - 45-60%
Losses (furnace) - 5%
Stack losses -12%
Pipe Still Heaters
SHAPES OF DIFFERENT FURNACES
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Terms used in connection with fired heaters are as follows:
1. Headers & Return Bends: are the fittings used to connect individual tubes.
2. Terminals: are the inlet and outlet connections.
3. Crossovers: are the piping used to connect the radiant with the convection section; usually
external to the heater.
4. Manifold: is the external piping used to connect the heater passes to the process piping; may be
furnished with the heater.
5. Setting: any and all parts that form:
(a) coil supports
(b) enclosure (housing)
6. Casing: Is the steel shell which encloses the heater.
7. Bridge wall or partition wall: are the refractory walls inside the heater that divide the radiant
section into separately fired zones.
8. Shield tubes or shock tubes: are the first 2 or 3 rows of tubes in the convection section. They
protect or shield the convection tubes from direct radiant heat and must have the same
metallurgy as the radiant tubes and have no fins.
9. Air plenum: is the chamber enclosing burners under the heater and having louvers to control the
air flow.
Pipe Still Heaters
Major Parts of the Heater
Burners
The purpose of a burner is to mix fuel and air to ensure complete combustion. There are about 12
basic burner designs. These are:
Capacity —high
low
Atomization —steam
mechanical
air assisted mechanical
Pipe Still Heaters
Pipe Still Heaters
Pipe Still Heaters
The radiant section design is based on Stefan 's law of radiation :
Problem 1
A petroleum stock at a rate of 1200 bbl/hr. of sp. gr. 0.8524 is passed through a train of heat
exchangers and is allowed to enter directly the radiant section of box type heater at 220 o C . The
heater is designed to burn 3500 kg/hour of refinery off gases as fuel. The net heating value of fuel is
47.46x103 Kj/kg. The radiant section contains 150 sq. meters of projected area of one row of tubes
(10.5 cm diameter, 12 m long and spaced at 2 OD).
Data α=0.88
Air fuel ratio= 25
Average Specific heat of stock=2.268 Kj/Kg o C.
Pipe Still Heaters
Problem 2
A pipe still uses 7110 lb per hour of a cracked gas (Net Heating Value (NHV) 20560 Btu per lb). The
radiant section contains 1500 sq ft of projected area, and the tube (5 in. outside diameter) are spaced
at a center-to-center distance of 10 in. there is only one row of radiant tubes, and they are 40 ft long.
The ratio of air to fuel is 21 (30 percent excess air).
a) What percentage of the heat liberation is absorbed in the radiant section?
b) How many Btu are absorbed per hour through each square foot of projected area?
Pipe Still Heaters
Problem 3
H.W 2
7000 lb/hr of cracked gas of 20560 Btu/lb NHV is used as a fuel in a furnace. The radiant section
absorbed 44500 Btu/hr ft2 of projected area. The tubes are 5 in. OD. , 10 in. spacing, and 20 ft long.
They arranged in two rows. The air to fuel ratio is 21.0. Calculate