Aerial Photography & Photogrammetry

Lecture 3-3

Geometry of a Vertical
Aerial Photograph
 4
Distortion
and
Displacement
4-1 Lens Distortion
4-2 Tilt Displacement
4-3 Topographic Displacement
4- Distortion and Displacement
• Distortion is any shift in the position of
an image on a photograph that alters the
perspective characteristics of the image.
Displacement is any shift in the position of
an image on a photograph that does not
alter the perspective characteristics of
the photograph. Makes stereo viewing
possible. Also, allows us to measure heights and
make topographic maps
4- Distortion and Displacement
• A vertical aerial photograph is not a
map.
• A photo is the product of a perspective
or central projection, and a map is the
product of an orthographic projection
(Figure 2.8 in text – page 36).
• Unlike a map on stable base material, an
aerial photo is subject to distortion and
displacement.
4- Distortion and Displacement
Distortions Displacement
1. Film and paper 1. curvature of the Earth
shrinkage 2. tilt
2. Atmospheric 3. topographic relief and
distortions height of features
3. Image motion The effect (1) are usually
4. Lens distortion negligible in most
The effects (1,2) are cases except for
usually negligible in most precise mapping
cases except for precise projects
mapping projects
4- Distortion and Displacement
Lens Distortion
1.Small effects due to the flaws in the optical
components (lens) of camera systems leading
to distortions
2.typically more serious at the edges of photo
3.Radial from the principal point
4.Makes objects appear either closer to,or
farther from the principal point than they
actually are
5.May be corrected using calibration curves
6.Examples: car windows/windshields, carnival
mirrors
4- Distortion and Displacement

Lens distortion graphic

4- Distortion and Displacement
Lens Distortion
4- Distortion and Displacement
Lens Distortion
4- Distortion and Displacement

Lens distortion –Barrel effect

4- Distortion and Displacement
4- Distortion and Displacement
4- Distortion and Displacement
4- Distortion and Displacement
4- Distortion and Displacement
Lens Distortion
4- Distortion and Displacement
Displacement
Shift in the location of an object in a
photo, which does not change the
perspective characteristics of the
photo
Fiducial distance between an object's
image and it's true plan position, caused
by change in elevation
4- Distortion and Displacement
Types of Displacement
1. Tilt Displacement
- Radial from the isocenter

2. Relief Displacement
– Radial from the nadir

3. Curvature of the Earth – negligible effect

(except for precise mapping projects)
4- Distortion and Displacement
1- Tilt Displacement
• Radiates from the isocenter of a photograph.
• Caused by the aircraft not being perfectly
horizontal at the time of exposure of the film.
• If the amount of tilt is known, photographs
can be rectified (expensive).
• If we can determine the direction of the tilt,
in terms of “upper side” of the tilt and the
“lower side" of the tilt, we can determine
how landscape features are being displaced.
4- Distortion and Displacement
1- Tilt Displacement
4- Distortion and Displacement
1- Tilt Displacement
4- Distortion and Displacement
2- Relief Displacement
Terrain
• Terrain or relief (also topographical relief)
involves the vertical and horizontal
dimensions of land surface.
• The term bathymetry is used to describe
underwater relief, while hypsometry
studies terrain relative to sea level.
• The Latin word terra (the root of terrain)
means "earth"
4- Distortion and Displacement 2- Relief Displacement
Terrain

Relief
map
of Sierra
Nevada
4- Distortion and Displacement 2- Relief Displacement
Relief
• Relief (or local relief) refers specifically to the
quantitative measurement of vertical elevation
change in a landscape.
• It is the difference between maximum and minimum
elevations within a given area, usually of limited extent.
• The relief of a landscape can change with the size of the
area over which it is measured, making the definition of
the scale over which it is measured very important.
Because it is related to the slope of surfaces within the
area of interest and to the gradient of any streams present,
the relief of a landscape is a useful metric in the study of
the Earth's surface.
4- Distortion and Displacement 2- Relief Displacement

Relief
A shaded and colored image (i.e. terrain is
enhanced) of varied terrain from the
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission. This
shows elevation model of New Zealand's
Alpine Fault running about 500 km (300 mi)
long. The escarpment is flanked by a vast
chain of hills between the fault and the
mountains of New Zealand's Southern Alps.
Northeast is towards the top.
4- Distortion and Displacement 2- Relief Displacement

Topography
• Topography is the study of the shape and
features of the surface of the Earth and
other observable astronomical objects
including planets, moons, and asteroids.
• The topography of an area could refer to the
surface shapes and features themselves, or
a description (especially their depiction in
maps).
4- Distortion and Displacement 2- Relief Displacement

Topography

A topographic
map with
contour interva
ls
 Thank you

Any Questions ?
END
of Lecture
Appendix L3-A r
Negative film PP

d
perspective center
Lens

Photo positive

d
H
r

Ground PP nadir point

D R
Appendix L3-A We may write two expressions for distance D in this
figure, in terms of radial image distances

perspective center rB f H  rB
 D
Δr D H f
rB rT f r  ( H  h )
 D T
rT D H h f
and set the two expressions
for D equal to each other,

nadir point
Appendix L3-A

H  rB rT  ( H  h)

f f
 H  rT  h  rT  H  rB  0
 H  ( rT  rB )  h  rT

hr
 r  d 
H
Appendix L3-B

Some Key Terms in Aerial

Photography
(compiled by Hugh Millward from
various sources)
• Air-base (AB) (a.k.a. Camera Base): Ground distance between centers (PPs) of
adjacent photos along a flight line.
• Angle of Coverage: the angle of the cone of rays passing the front of a camera
lens. Normal angle = 60° - 75°, Wide-angle = over 75°
• Average Photo-base (PB): For adjacent air photos, the average of the distance
between the PP and CPP on each photo
• Camera-base (CB) (a.k.a. Air-base): Ground distance between centres (PPs) of
adjacent photos along a flight line
• Conjugate Principal Point (CPP) (a.k.a. Corresponding P.P.): The location of a
Principal Point from one photo on an adjacent photo along the flight line
• Control Point: A reference point precisely located on both the ground and the
photo (ground control point) on both a map and the photo (map control point), or
on two adjacent photos (photo control point)
• Controlled Mosaic: A series of overlapping air photos that have been rectified and
aligned with ground control points, to allow planimetrically-correct distance
measurements
• Crab: Rotation of the camera (and aircraft) relative to the flightline
• Drift: Lateral shift of the aircraft from the planned flightline
• Eye-base (EB): Interpupillary distance, normally 6.4 (± 0.4) cm.
• Fiducial Marks: Marks built into aerial cameras which appear on the sides or in
the corners of the photo (or both), and which are used to determine the precise
location of the principal point.
• Focal length: Distance from the optical centre of the lens to the focal plane,
when the camera is focussed at infinity.
• Forward Overlap: (a.k.a. Endlap): The amount of overlap between successive
photos in a flight line to allow for stereo viewing (usually 60 – 70%)
• High Oblique photo: An air photo which shows the horizon line (usually having
high vertical tilt, of 60° or more)
• Isocentre: The point on an air photo which lies halfway between the Principal
Point and the Nadir (Tilt-displacement radiates from this)
• Low Oblique Photo: An air photo tilted from the vertical, but not enough for the
horizon to be visible (usually having vertical tilt of 3°- 60°)
• Mosaic: A series of overlapping air photos
• Nadir: That point on the ground vertically beneath the camera lens (or aircraft),
or the point on the photo which corresponds to it. (Topographic Displacement
radiates from this)
• Orthophoto: A vertical air photo which has been rectified to remove parallax
• Parallax: The apparent displacement of the position of an object, with respect
to a reference point, caused by a shift in the point of observation.
• Photo-base (PB): On a single air photo, the distance between the photo's
principal point and the CPP of an adjacent photo (see Average PB)
• Principal Point (PP): The geometric centre of an aerial photograph, located at the
intersection of lines drawn between the fiducial marks (i.e., at the intersection of the x and
y axes). (Lens distortion radiates from this)
• Radial Line Triangulation (RLT): The production of planimetrically-correct (i.e. uniform
scale) maps from two or more adjacent vertical air photos, using the techniques of
resection and intersection.
• Rectification: The process of converting a vertical air photo to remove displacements
caused by tilt or topography (i.e., to remove parallax).
• Sidelap (a.k.a. Lateral overlap): The amount of overlap between air photos in adjacent
flight lines (usually 20 – 30%)
• Stereogram: A stereopair or stereo-triplet mounted for proper stereovision (conjugate
points 5.7±0.3 cm apart)
• Tilt: Rotation of the camera away from the vertical, about the x- or y-axis
• Tilt Displacement: Changes in position caused by scale variations related to the tilt of the
camera, about either the x-or y-axis
• Topographic Displacement (a.k.a. Relief Displacement, Radial Displacement, or Planimetric
Shift due to Elevation): Changes in position caused by scale variations related to differences
in elevation or height.
• Uncontrolled Mosaic: A series of overlapping air photos which have not been aligned to
ground control points
• Vertical Air Photo: An air photo with less than 3° of vertical tilt
• X-axis: For a single photo, the line through the photo showing direction of flight at the
centre of the photo (i.e., nose-to-tail axis)
• Y-axis: the line at right-angles to the x-axis (i.e., wingtip-to-wingtip axis)
Appendix 3-1
How is the Principal Point determined from aerial photographs ?
Principal Point is determined by the photographs Fiducial Marks

What aspects of photographic geometry cause differences between Nadir and the Principal
Point?
-Topographic displacement affects often increase from Nadir
-Tilt displacement affects increase away from the Isocenter of the photograph

Why are most aerial photographs taken from a tilted angle opposed to a vertical position?

What two aspects of aerial photography are used to define the scale of a photograph, and
how are they calculated?
Scale is determined by the
1- focal length of a lens/
2- photograph height.
Focal Length = 4cm , Flying Height = 100000cm , 4/100000 = Scale 1/25,000
Appendix 3-3
Crab
Opposite line of photographs
are not parallel to flight line is
known as crab of photograph.

Drift
When aircraft is swayed away
from its preplanned flight line
then it is known as drift.