A Survey of Mathematics With Applications

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 3-1
SEVENTH EDITION and EXPANDED SEVENTH EDITION
Chapter 3
Logic

3.1
Statements and Logical

Connectives

HISTORY—The Greeks:
 Aristotelian logic: The ancient Greeks were the

first people to look at the way humans think and
draw conclusions. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) is
called the father of logic. This logic has been
taught and studied for more than 2000 years.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-4

Mathematicians
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) believed that all

mathematical and scientific concepts could be derived
from logic. He was the first to seriously study symbolic
logic. In this type of logic, written statements use
symbols and letters.
 George Boole (1815 – 1864) is said to be the founder of

symbolic logic because he had such impressive work in
this area.

Logic and the English Language
 Connectives - words such as and, or, if, then

 Exclusive or - one or the other of the given
events can happen, but not both.
 Inclusive or - one or the other or both of the
given events can happen.

Statements and Logical Connectives
 Statement - A sentence that can be judged either true

or false.
 Labeling a statement true or false is called assigning a
truth value.
 Simple Statements - A sentence that conveys only
one idea.
 Compound Statements - Sentences that combine two
or more ideas and can be assigned a truth value.

Quantifiers
 Negation of a statement - the opposite

meaning of a statement.
 The negation of a false statement is always a true
statement.
 The negation of a true statement is always false.
 Quantifiers - words such as all, none, no,
some, etc…

Example: Write Negations
Write the negation of the statement.

Some candy bars contain nuts.
 Since some means “at least one” this

statement is true. The negation is “No candy
bars contain nuts,” which is a false statement.

Example: Write Negations continued
Write the negation of the statement.

All tables are oval.
 This is a false statement since some tables

are round, rectangular, or other shapes. The
negation could be “Some tables are not oval.”

Compound Statements
 Statements consisting of two or more simple

statements are called compound statements.
 The connectives often used to join two simple

statements are and, or, if…then…, and if and
only if.

Not Statements
The symbol used in logic to show the negation

of a statement is ~. It is read “not”.

And Statements
  is the symbol for a conjunction and is read

“and.”
 The other words that may be used to express a
conjunction are: but, however, and
nevertheless.

Example: Write a Conjunction
Write the conjunction in symbolic form.

The dog is gray, but the dog is not old.
Solution:
Let p and q represent the simple statements.
p: The dog is gray.
q: The dog is old.
In symbol form, the compound statement is
p  q.

Or Statements:
 The disjunction is symbolized by  and read

“or.”
Example:
Write the statement in symbolic form.
Carl will not go to the movies or Carl with not go
to the baseball game.
Solution:  p q

If-Then Statements
 The conditional is symbolized by

and is read “if-then.”
 The antecedent is the part of the statement that
comes before the arrow.
 The consequent is the part that follows the arrow.

Example: Write a Conditional Statement
Let p: Nathan goes to the park.

q: Nathan will swing.
Write the following statements symbolically.
 If Nathan goes to the park, then he will swing.
 If Nathan does not go to the park, then he will not
swing.
Solutions:

a) p  q b)  p  q

If and Only If Statements
 The biconditional is symbolized by  and is

read “if and only if.”
 If and only if is sometimes abbreviated as “iff.”

Example: Write a Statement Using the
Biconditional
Let p: The dryer is running.
q: There are clothes in the dryer.
Write the following symbolic statements in words.
a) qp b)  p  q 
Solutions:
 The clothes are in the dryer if and only if the dryer is
running.
 It is false that the dryer is running if and only if the
clothes are not in the dryer.

3.2
Truth Tables for Negation,

Conjunction, and Disjunction

Truth Table
 A truth table is used to determine when a

compound statement is true or false.

Negation Truth Table
p ~p
Case 1 T F
Case 2 F T

Conjunction Truth Table
p q pq
Case 1 T T T
Case 2 T F F
Case 3 F T F
Case 4 F F F
The conjunction is true only when both p and q are true.

Disjunction
p q pq
Case 1 T T T
Case 2 T F T
Case 3 F T T
Case 4 F F F
The disjunction is true when either p is true, q is true, or

both p and q are true.

3.3
Truth Tables for the

Conditional and Biconditional

Conditional
p q pq
Case 1 T T T
Case 2 T F F
Case 3 F T T
Case 4 F F T
The conditional statement p  q is true in every case

except when p is a true statement and q is a false
statement.

Biconditional
 The biconditional statement, p  q means that p  q and q  p,

or, symbolically p  q  q  p .
   
p q (p  q)  (q  p)
case 1 T T T T T T T T T
case 2 T F T F F F F T T
case 3 F T F T T F T F F
case 4 F F F T F T F T F
order of steps 1 3 2 7 4 6 5

Self-Contradiction
 A self-contradiction is a compound statement

that is always false.
 When every truth value in the answer column of

the truth table is false, then the statement is a
self-contradiction.

Tautology
 A tautology is a compound statement that is

always true.
 When every truth value in the answer column of

the truth table is true, the statement is a
tautology.

Implication
 An implication is a condition statement that is a

tautology.
 The consequent will be true whenever the

antecedent is true.

3.4
Equivalent Statements

Equivalent Statements
 Two statements are equivalent if both statements have

exactly the same truth values in the answer columns of
the truth tables.

Symbols:  or 
 In a truth table, if the answer columns are identical, the
statements are equivalent.
 If the answer columns are not identical, the statements
are not equivalent.

De Morgan’s Laws
~ (p  q)  ~ p  ~ q
~ (p  q)  ~ p  ~ q

p  q  ~p  q
 To change a conditional statement into a disjunction,
negate the antecedent, change the conditional symbol
to a disjunction symbol, and keep the consequent the
same.
 To change a disjunction statement to a conditional
statement, negate the first statement, change the
disjunction symbol to a conditional symbol, and keep the
second statement the same.

Variations of the Conditional Statement
 The variations of conditional statements are the

converse of the conditional, the inverse of the
conditional, and the contrapositive of the
conditional.

Variations of the Conditional Statement
Symbolic
Name Form Read
Conditional p  q “if p, then q”
Converse of the conditional q  p “if q, then p”
Inverse of the conditional ~p  ~q “if not p, then not q”
Contrapositive of the ~q  ~p “if not q, then not p”

conditional

3.5
Symbolic Arguments

Symbolic Arguments
 An argument is valid when its conclusion

necessarily follows from a given set of
premises.
 An argument is invalid (or a fallacy) when the
conclusion does not necessarily follow from the
given set of premises.

Valid or Invalid?
 If the truth table answer column is true in every

case, then the statement is a tautology, and the
argument is valid.
 If the truth table answer column is not true in
every case then the statement is not a
tautology, and the argument is invalid.

Law of Detachment
 Also called modus ponens.

 The argument form:
pq
p
q

Determining Whether an Argument is
Valid
 Write the argument in symbolic form.
 Compare the form with forms that are known
to be either valid or invalid.
 If the argument contains two premises, write a
conditional statement of the form
[(premise 1)  (premise 2)]  conclusion

Determining Whether an Argument is
Valid continued
 Construct a truth table for the statement in
step 3.
 If the answer column of the table has all trues,
the statement is a tautology, and the argument
is valid. If the answer column of the table does
not have all trues, the argument is invalid.

Valid Arguments
Law of Detachment Law of Contraposition

pq pq
p ~q
q  ~p
Law of Syllogism Disjunctive Syllogism

pq pq
qr ~p
p  r  q

Invalid Arguments
 Fallacy of the Converse  Fallacy of the Inverse
pq pq
q ~p
p  ~q

3.6
Euler Diagrams and

Syllogistic Arguments

Syllogistic Arguments
 Another form of argument is called a syllogistic

argument, better known as syllogism.
 The validity of a syllogistic argument is
determined by using Euler diagrams.

Euler Diagrams
 One method used to determine whether an

argument is valid or is a fallacy.
 Uses circles to represent sets in syllogistic
arguments.

Symbolic Arguments Versus Syllogistic
Arguments
Words or phrases used Methods of determining

validity
Symbolic and, or, not, if-then, if and Truth tables or by

argument only if comparison with
standard forms of
arguments
Syllogistic all are, some are, none are, Euler diagrams

argument some are not

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Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

Statements and Logical

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Aristotelian logic: The ancient Greeks were the

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-4

 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) believed that all

 George Boole (1815 – 1864) is said to be the founder of

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-5

 Connectives - words such as and, or, if, then

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-6

 Statement - A sentence that can be judged either true

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-7

 Negation of a statement - the opposite

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-8

Write the negation of the statement.

 Since some means “at least one” this

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-9

Write the negation of the statement.

 This is a false statement since some tables

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-10

 Statements consisting of two or more simple

 The connectives often used to join two simple

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-11

The symbol used in logic to show the negation

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-12

  is the symbol for a conjunction and is read

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-13

Write the conjunction in symbolic form.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-14

 The disjunction is symbolized by  and read

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-15

 The conditional is symbolized by

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-16

Let p: Nathan goes to the park.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-17

 The biconditional is symbolized by  and is

 If and only if is sometimes abbreviated as “iff.”

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-18

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-19

Truth Tables for Negation,

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc.

 A truth table is used to determine when a

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-21

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-22

The conjunction is true only when both p and q are true.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-23

The disjunction is true when either p is true, q is true, or

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-24

Truth Tables for the

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The conditional statement p  q is true in every case

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-26

 The biconditional statement, p  q means that p  q and q  p,

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. Slide 3-27