01

DC
Circuits
By
Sai Nishwanth Valiveti
21241A3251
 Thevenin's Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, irrespective of
how complex it is, to an equivalent circuit with a single voltage source and a series
resistance.
• A Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown
in the image. In the image, we see that
multiple resistive circuit elements are
replaced by a single equivalent
resistance Rs and multiple energy
sources by an equivalent voltage source
Vs.
 Examples Of Thevenin's Theorem

• Step 1: For the analysis of the above circuit using Thevenin’s theorem, firstly remove the load resistance
at the centre, in this case, 40 Ω.
• Step 2: Remove the voltage sources’ internal resistance by shorting all the voltage sources connected to
the circuit, i.e. v = 0. If current sources are present in the circuit, then remove the internal resistance by
open circuiting the sources. This step is done to have an ideal voltage source or an ideal current source
for the analysis.
• Step 3: Find the equivalent resistance. In the example, the equivalent resistance of the circuit is
calculated as follows:
• With the load resistance removed and the voltage source shorted, the equivalent resistance of the
circuit is calculated as follows:
The resistor 10 Ω is parallel to 20 Ω, therefore the equivalent resistance of the circuit is:

• Step 4: Find the equivalent voltage.

To calculate the equivalent voltage, reconnect the voltage sources back into the circuit. Vs = VAB,
therefore the current flowing around the loop is calculated as follows:
 • The calculated current is common to both resistors, so the voltage drop across the resistors can be
calculated as follows:

• The voltage drop across both resistors is the same.

• Step 5: Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit consists of a series
resistance of 6.67 Ω and a voltage source of 13.33 V.
 • The current flowing in the circuit is calculated using the formula below:

• Thevenin’s theorem can be applied to both AC and DC circuits. But it should be noted that this
method can only be applied to AC circuits consisting of linear elements like resistors, inductors,
capacitors. Like Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, equivalent Thevenin’s impedance is obtained by
replacing all voltage sources with their internal impedances.
 Norton's Theorem

• Fig. 3.155 (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with two terminals A and B brought out. The network in the box
may contain any number of resistors and e.m.f. sources connected in any manner. But according to Norton, the
entire circuit behind AB can be replaced by a current source IN in parallel with a resistance RN as shown in Fig.
3.155 (ii). The resistance RN is the same as Thevenin resistance RTh. The value of IN is determined as
mentioned in Norton’s theorem. Once Norton’s equivalent circuit is determined [See Fig. 3.155 (ii)], then current
in any load RL connected across AB can be readily obtained
 • Hence Norton’s theorem as applied to d.c. circuits may be stated as under : Any linear, bilateral
network having two terminals A and B can be replaced by a current source of current output IN in
parallel with a resistance RN.
(i) The output IN of the current source is equal to the current that would flow through AB when
A and B are short-circuited.
(ii) The resistance RN is the resistance of the network measured between A and B with load removed
and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal resistances. Ideal voltage sources are replaced with
short circuits and ideal current sources are replaced with open circuits
 Procedure for Finding Norton Equivalent Circuit

• (i) Open the two terminals (i.e. remove any load) between which we want to find Norton equivalent
circuit.
• (ii) Put a short-circuit across the terminals under consideration. Find the short-circuit current
flowing in the short circuit. It is called Norton current IN.
• (iii) Determine the resistance between the two open terminals with all ideal voltage sources shorted
and all ideal current sources opened (a non-ideal source is replaced by its internal resistance). It is
called Norton’s resistance RN. It is easy to see that RN = RTh.
• (iv) Connect IN and RN in parallel to produce Norton equivalent circuit between the two terminals
under consideration.
• (v) Place the load resistor removed in step (i) across the terminals of the Norton equivalent circuit.
The load current can now be calculated by using current-divider rule. This load current will be the
same as the load current in the original circuit
 Methods of Finding Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
There are three methods for finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit. Based on the type of sources that are
present in the network, we can choose one of these three methods. Now, let us discuss these three
methods one by one.
Method 1
Follow these steps in order to find the Norton’s equivalent circuit, when only the sources of independent
type are present.
• Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which, the Norton’s
equivalent circuit is to be found.
• Step 2 − Find the Norton’s current IN by shorting the two opened terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 3 − Find the Norton’s resistance RN across the open terminals of the circuit considered in Step1
by eliminating the independent sources present in it. Norton’s resistance RN will be same as that of
Thevenin’s resistance RTh.
• Step 4 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Norton’s current IN in parallel with
Norton’s resistance RN.
Method 2
Follow these steps in order to find the Norton’s equivalent circuit, when the sources of both
independent type and dependent type are present.
• Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by opening the terminals with respect to which the
Norton’s equivalent circuit is to be found.
• Step 2 − Find the open circuit voltage VOC across the open terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 3 − Find the Norton’s current IN by shorting the two opened terminals of the above circuit.
• Step 4 − Find Norton’s resistance RN by using the following formula.

• Step 5 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Norton’s current IN in parallel
with Norton’s resistance RN.
Now, we can find the response in an element that lies to the right side of Norton’s equivalent circuit.
Method 3
• This is an alternate method for finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit.
• Step 1 − Find a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit between the desired two terminals. We know that it consists of a
Thevenin’s voltage source, VTh and Thevenin’s resistor, RTh.
• Step 2 − Apply source transformation technique to the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. We will get the
Norton’s equivalent circuit. Here,
• Norton’s current.

• Norton’s resistance,

• This concept is illustrated in the following figure.

• Now, we can find the response in an element by placing Norton’s equivalent circuit to the left of that element.
• Note − Similarly, we can find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit first
and then apply source transformation technique to it. This concept is illustrated in the following figure.

• This is the Method 3 for finding a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

 Example of Finding Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Question:

Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by first finding a Norton’s equivalent circuit to the left of
terminals A and B.
Answer:
Let us solve this problem using Method 3.
• Step 1 − In previous chapter, we calculated the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit to the left side of
terminals A & B. We can use this circuit now. It is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Apply source transformation technique to the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Substitute the
values of VTh and RTh in the following formula of Norton’s current.
 Therefore, Norton’s current IN is 5 A.
We know that Norton’s resistance, RN is same as that of Thevenin’s resistance RTh.

The Norton’s equivalent circuit corresponding to the above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in the
following figure.
Now, place the Norton’s equivalent circuit to the left of the terminals A & B of the given circuit.

By using current division principle, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor will be

Therefore, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor is 2 A.

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem can be defined as, a resistive load is connected to a DC-
network, when the load resistance (RL) is equivalent to the internal resistance then it receives the
highest power is known as Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the source network. The theorem
defines how to select the load resistance (RL) when the source resistance is given once. It is a
general misunderstanding for applying the theorem in the reverse situation.
• It doesn’t mean that how to select the source resistance for a specific load resistance (RL). Actually,
the source resistance that makes the best use of power transfer is constantly zero, apart from the
value of load resistance. This theorem can be expanded to AC circuits that comprise reactance and
defines that the highest power transmission happens when the load impedance (ZL) must be
equivalent to the ZTH (complex conjugate of corresponding circuit impedance).
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem Solved Problem
Question:
Find the load resistance RL that enables the circuit (left of the terminals a and b) to deliver maximum
power toward the load. Also, find the maximum power delivered to the load.
Solution:
In order to apply the maximum power transfer theorem, we need to find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
(a) Vth derivation of the circuit: open-circuit voltage

Constraints: V1=100, V2 – 20=Vx, and V3=Vth

At node 2:

At node 3:

(1)*2 + (2)*3 –> Vth=120 [V]

 (b) Rth derivation (by Test Voltage Method): After deactivation & test voltage application, we have:

After deactivation & test voltage application

At node 2:Constraints: V3=VT and V2=Vx

At node 2:

At node 3 (KCL):
 From (1) and (2):

(c) Maximum Power Transfer: now the circuit is reduced to:

Result Circuit
To obtain maximum power transfer, then, RL=3=Rth. Finally, the maximum power transferred to RL is:
Star Delta Transformation
• In electrical systems, we have to deal with resistances a
lot, arranged in different patterns i.e. parallel, series, mesh
etc. Simple single-phase resistive circuits, where
resistances are present in parallel or series combination,
can be solved by using series or parallel formulas of
resistances, there are also few other techniques i.e.
Kirchoff’s Laws, nodal analysis etc. to solve such circuits.
But in the case of complex 3-phase resistive circuits, we
can’t use these basic formulas & thus need better
techniques. Star to delta transformation method is one of
them.
• The Star-Delta Transformation (Y-∆) is a mathematical technique given by Edwin Kennelly in
1899 and is used to solve complex 3-phase resistive electrical circuits by transforming from
Star(Y) design to Delta(∆) design with the help of formulas.

Before going any further, let’s first understand why we need Star to Delta Transformation?
Why Star Delta Transformation?
• We use Star-Delta transformation to simplify complex 3-phase circuits.
• These simplified versions are a lot easier to solve as compared to the original
complex ones.
• So, such transformations actually save us from complex calculations, thus
reduce errors & save time.
Now let’s have a look at Star & Delta arrangements, one by one:

What is Star(Y) Network?

• If all resistances are connected to a common point(also called Joint) from one
end, while the other end(of the resistances) is open, this connection styling is
termed as Star Network or Y Connection(also called wye circuitry).
• Star Connection is also referred to as open-loop as there’s no loop in it.
• Below figure shows the T-Shaped Normal circuit and its equivalent Y-Shaped
Connection:
• We haven’t performed any transformation in the above figure, instead, we have
just draw a single circuit in two different styles, one is called T-shaped, while
the second one is Y-shaped.
• In both of these forms, resistances are connected at a single common point
called Junction/Joint, represented by J in the above figure.

Now let’s have a look at How Delta Network looks like?

What is Delta(∆) Network?
• If the resistances are creating a loop i.e. each end of resistance is connected to
other resistance, such circuitry is termed as Delta Circuitry, Delta Network or
Delta Connection, denoted by ∆.
• Delta Connection is also referred to as a closed-loop as it involves a loop.

Below figure shows the normal loop circuit and its equivalent Delta Circuit:
 • Again we are not performing any transformation, instead, we are just displaying
a single circuit in its two equivalent shapes.
• In both formats, resistances have created a loop and are connected to one
another.

By now, you must have understood the difference between Star & Delta Connection
and if you are presented with a circuit, you can easily find whether its a Star or a
Delta. Now let’s have a look at How to transform from one shape to another(i.e. Star
to Delta & Delta to Star).
 Star to Delta Transformation
• Transforming a circuit from Star Connection to Delta Connection is called Star
to Delta Transformation.
• As shown in the below figure, both connections have the same number of
resistances but their values are different.
• So, if we want to convert a Star Connection into a Delta one, then we need to
find the values of all Delta resistances i.e. RA, RB & RC.
Equation of Star Delta
Transformation
• As shown in the above figure, we need to find the values of Delta resistances.
• In order to do so, let’s find out the resistance between nodes.

Between N1 & N2:

• In star connection, the resistance between N1 & N2 is equal to R1 + R2.

• In Delta connection, resistance RA is in parallel with RB & RC, so the
resistance between N1 and N2 will be equal to RA(RB + RC)/(RA + RB + RC).
(using resistance parallel formula)
• As both circuits are equivalent, so the resistance between similar nodes must be
equal and will give us equation A, shown below:
Between N2 & N3:
• The resistance between nodes N2 & N3 will give us equation B:

Between N3 & N1:

• The resistance between nodes N3 & N1 will give us equation C:
• Now let’s add Equations A, B & C and we will get equation D, as shown in the
below figure:

• Now let’s subtract equations A, B & C from equation D and we will get values
of R1, R2 & R3, as shown in the below figure:
• Now by using these values of R1, R2 & R3, we can get the value of RA, RB &
RC, as shown in the below figure:

• So, using these six equations, we can easily convert Star to Delta and Delta to
Star, it will get more clear when we solve examples in the next section.
 Example Star to Delta Transformation
• The star-∆ alteration complications are the finest samples to comprehend the
idea of the circuitries.
• The resistance in a star system is represented with (X, Y, Z), which can be seen
in the above diagram and the values of these resistances are
(X= 80Ω), (Y= 120Ω), and (Z = 40Ω).
A= (XY/Z) +Y+X)
X= 80 Ω, Y= 120 Ω, and Z = 40 Ω
• By putting these parameters in the above formula we calculate the value of A.
A = (80 X 120/40) + 120 + 80 )= (240 + 120 + 80 )= (440 Ω)
• As we have find value of resistance (B) which is ((ZX/Y) + X+Z).
• Now we put values in this equation to find the value of B.
B = ((40X80/120) + 80 + 40) = (27 + 120) = (147 Ω).
• Now we can calculate the value of resistance C by this equation
C= ((YZ/X) +Z+Y)
• Putting value in this equation we get C.
((120 x 40/80) + 40 + 120) = (60 + 160) = (220 Ω)
 Delta to Star Transformation
• Now we see how we can converts delta circuitry back to the star connection.
• Let’s solve circuitry which is connected in the delta form and has 3 points a, b,
c. The value of resistance among the joints a and b is (R1), resistance among the
b and c is (R2), and c and d are (R3).
• The value of resistance among the points and b is given here.
(Rab) = (R1)ΙΙ(R1+R2) = [(R1).(R2+R3)]/[(R1+R2+R3)]
• You can see there is another circuitry that is connected in the Y connection it has
three branches a, a, c which has resistance (Ra, Rb, Rc).
• If we find the resistance among points a and b then we have.
(Rab) = (Ra+Rb)
• As both of these circuitries are equivalent so the value of resistance is measured
among points a and b.
(Ra+Rb)=[(R1). (R2+R3)]/(R1+R2+R3)—-(x)
• So the resistance values will also same in the among points b and c.
(Rb + Rc)=[(R2). (R3+R1)]/(R1+R2+R3)—(y)
• And the value of resistance among the c and a will also same.
(Rc + Ra)=[(R3) x (R1+R2)]/(R1+R2+R3)—(z)
• If we add expressions (x),(y),(z) then we have.
(2)(R1+R2+R3)= 2[(R1.R2)+(R2.R3)+(R3.R1)]
(R1+R2+R3) =[(R1.R2)+(R2.R3)+(R3.R1)]/[(R1+R2+R3)]—-(d)
• If we subtract the equation (x),(y), (z) from equation (d) then we have.
Ra =(R3.R1)/(R1+R2+R3)—(e)
Rb =(R1.R2)/(R1+R2+R3)—(f)
Rc=(R2.R3)/(R1+R2+R3)–(g)
• The expression of the Y-Δ transformation can be defined as.
• From equations e,f,g we can conclude that the resistance in star configuration is
equivalent to the multiple of the 2 resistors joined with the identical point
divided by the sum of all resistors in the Δ circuitry.
• If in the delta circuitry the values of all resistors are identical then the
correspondent resistance value (r) in the star circuit will be.
r = (R.R)/(R+R+R)
r= R/3
 Advantage of Star Delta Conversion

• These are some advantages of this transformation which are described

here.
• Star transformation is well suitable for transport voltages to long
distances and it also has a neutral point that can be used to the
unbalanced transient current of the circuitry to the ground.
• Delta transformation can transport balance three-phase voltage(V)
without any neutral (n) wire which marks ∆ best for Transmission
network.
 Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem states the following:
• “If more than one source acts simultaneously in an electric circuit, then the current through
any one of the branches of the circuit is the summation of currents which would flow
through the branch for each source, keeping all the other sources dead.”
• To calculate the individual contribution of each source in a circuit, the other source must be
replaced or removed without affecting the final result. While removing a voltage source, its
value is set to zero. This is done by replacing the voltage source with a short circuit. When
removing a current source, its value is set to zero. This is done by replacing the current
source with an open circuit.
• The superposition theorem is very important in circuit analysis because it converts a
complex circuit into a Norton or Thevenin equivalent circuit.
Guidelines to keep in mind while using the superposition theorem:

• When you sum the individual contributions of each source, you should be careful while
assigning signs to the quantities. It is suggested to assign a reference direction to each
unknown quantity. If a contribution from a source has the same direction as the reference
direction, it has a positive sign in the sum; if it has the opposite direction, then a negative
sign.
• To use the superposition theorem with circuit currents and voltages, all the components
must be linear.
• It should be noted that the superposition theorem does not apply to power, as power is not
a linear quantity.
 How to apply Superposition
Theorem?
• The first step is to select one source among the multiple sources present in the bilateral
network. Among the various sources in the circuit, any one of the sources can be
considered first.
• Except for the selected source, all the sources must be replaced by their internal
impedance.
• Using a network simplification approach, evaluate the current flowing through or the
voltage drop across a particular element in the network.
• The same considering a single source is repeated for all the other sources in the circuit.
• Upon obtaining the respective response for individual source, perform the summation
of all responses to get the overall voltage drop or current through the circuit element.
 Superposition Theorem Solved Example
• Let us understand how to use the superposition theorem to analyze circuits with the
help of an example.
• Example 1:
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω using the superposition theorem.
Solution:
• Step 1: First, let us find the current flowing through a circuit by considering only the 20
V voltage source. The current source can be open-circuited, hence, the modified circuit
diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2: The nodal voltage V1 can be determined using the nodal analysis method.
The nodal equation at node 1 is written as follows:
• The current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be found out using the following
equation:

• Substituting the value of the V1 in the above equation, we get

• Therefore, the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor to due 20 V voltage source is
0.4 A.
• Step 3: Now let us find out the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor considering
only the 4 A current source. We eliminate the 20 V voltage source by short-circuiting it.
The modified circuit, therefore, is given as follows:
• In the above circuit, the resistors 5 Ω and 10 Ω are parallel to each other and this
parallel combination of resistors is in series with the 10 Ω resistor. Therefore, the
equivalent resistance will be:

• Now, the simplified circuit is shown as follows:

• Now the current flowing through the 20 Ω resistor can be determined using the
current division principle.

• Substituting the values, we get:

• Therefore, the current flowing through the circuit when only 4 A current source is
1.6 A.
• Step 4: The summation of currents I1 and I2 will give us the current flowing through
the 20 Ω resistor. Mathematically, this is represented as follows:

• Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation, we get

I = 0.4+1.6 = 2 A
• Therefore, the current flowing through the resistor is 2 A.
 Limitations of Superposition Theorem

• The theorem does not apply to non-linear circuits. The requisite of

linearity indicates that the Superposition Theorem is only applicable
to determine voltage and current, but not power. Power dissipation is
a nonlinear function that does not algebraically add to an accurate
total when only one source is considered at a time.
• The application of the superposition theorem requires two or more
sources in the circuit.
Thank You
!