Poltava State Medical University

Department of Histology, Cytology and Embryology

Introduction to the course of

Histology, Cytology and Embryology.
History of development of science

PhD, Associate Professor,

Department of Histology,
Cytology and Embryology
Yakushko Olena
Plan of lecture
• 1. The history of the development of
Histology, Cytology, Embryology.
• 2. The key points of cell theory.
• 3. Cell junctions.
• 4. The structure and functions of the
cell membrane.
• 5. Characteristic of the cytoplasm.
• 6. Organelles and inclusions.
• 7. Nucleus. Cell division
 The history of Histology
• There are three periods in histology history:
• premicroscopic, microscopic and synthetic.

• Premicroscopic period is characterized by very

common and approximate knowledge about cell and
tissue structure. It was based on macroscopic
observation. This period has invested very few into
understanding of tissue and organs structure and
functions.
• Microscopic period was started from light microscope invention. First
try to invent microscope was made by Galilee in 1609-1610. Among
first microscope constructors were K. Drebbel and brothers Janssen.
• R. Hooke was first to explore cells of plans and animals with help of
the light microscope in 1677.
• A. Laevenhook constructed the light microscope with magnification
300 times. It allowed him to explore blood cells, spermatozoa and
range of other biological objects.
• In 18th century in Holland and Russia the first achromatic microscopes
were invented. They were possible to give fine image. This fact made
a deep impact on histology development.
• In 1801 French histologist K. Bicha on a base of
macroscopic investigation made broad tissue classification.
• In 1819 his disciple K. Mayer introduced the term
“histology".
• In 1839 German scientist T. Schwan formulated cell theory. It
postulated the general principles of cell structure and had a big impact
on histology development.
• In second half of 19th century it was assumed that cells form an
organism no one by one but as the part of tissue.
• F. Leidig (1853) and A. Keliker (1855) summarized all previous material
and united all know tissue types to 4 tissue kind.
• Check physiologist and histologist Y.Purkinje introduced to histological
technique the main stages of section preparation which are preserved until
today. He also constructed first microtome. As a result of all of this the
new findings were acquired.
• In 1852 R. Remark described amitosis; in 1859 P. Virchow made
correction of cell theory and created elements of cell pathology.
• In 1861 M. Schultze gave the first definition of cell.
• In 1871-1879 the mitosis of plant cell (I.D. Chistiakov) and animal cell
(P.I.
Peremezhko, V. Fleming) were described.
• In 1884 O.Gertvig and E. Strassburger suggested that chromatin is
material
carrier of heredity.
• In 1875-1876 O. Gertvig and E. van Beneden discovered cell center, in
1898 R. Altmann discovered mitochondria, in 1899 K. Golgi described
endoplasmic reticulum. At the end of XIX century the microscopic
description of organs and tissues were generally completed and
microsopic anatomy were founded. With help of silver impregnation
• Formulated by I.I. Mechnikov phagocytosis theory had a great
importance. In honor to his works he was awarded by Nobel Prize.
• In the beginning of XX century the descriptive pattern of histology was
enriched by comparative and experimental works. The great
contribution to evolutionary histology was made by A.A. Zavarzin, who
was first to formulate the theory of tissue evolution. On a base of
similarity in tissue structure of mammalians and arthropoda he made
the conclusion that all animals have four tissue systems due to one
pattern of interaction with external environment. The tissue systems
perform four main functions: 1) defense or external exchange, 2)
internal exchange or homeostasis maintenance, 3) locomotion, 4)
reactivity. The Zavarzin’s theory was named theory of parallel tissue
development. According to this theory, the animals of different types
have common principle of tissue organization and have four tissue
systems. N. G. Fllopin continues studying theoretical problems of
tissue evolution.
• The great contribution in histology development in the beginning of
XX century was made by A.A. Maximov. He formulated unitary theory
of hemopoiesis. Until 50s years of XX century the main histological
works were concentrated in descriptive, evolutionary and
experimentally directions.
• The impact on histology development was made by discovery of
electronic microscope by E. Rusca, M. Kiolle, B. Borrie in 1928-
1931. The new stage of histology development was started. In a
short period of time the cell structure on ultrastructural level was
studied. In 1954 A. Rodin made description of peroxisomes. In
1955 G.
Palladę described ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum and K. de
Duve discovered lysosomes. In the beginning of 60s all unknown
before organneles were discovered. In 60s80s the methods of
electronic histochemistry and electronic autoradiography were
introduced into histology. The ultramicroscopic structure of cells
from different tissues was studied. The scanning electronic
microscopy gives 3-dimenitional image of structures. At the same
time the methods of light microscopy are still updated. The
immunohistochemistrv and immunocytochemistry, which are based
on monoclone antybodies reactions, were introduced into
histology. This methods help to detect different cells and point
different subtypes of them. They are very specific and they
became wide spread in clinical setting. Today we are in sintetic
period of histology development, which is characterized by using
many different approaches to achieve one aim - discover secrets
The key points of cell theory
Cell Theory is one of the basic principles of biology. Credit for the
formulation of this theory is given to German scientists Theodor Schwann
(1810–1822), Matthias Schleiden (1804–1881), and Rudolph Virchow
(1821–1902).

The Cell Theory states:

- The cell is the basic unit of life.

- All living organisms are composed of cells. They may be unicellular or
multicellular.
- Cells arise from pre-existing cells. (They are not derived from
spontaneous generation.)

The modern version of the Cell Theory includes the ideas that:

-Energy flow occurs within cells.

-Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.
-All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
 The cell - is the structural and
functional unit of the organism
3 basic parts:
I. cell membrane
II. cytoplasm
III. nucleus
 CELL COMPONENTS

I. Cell membrane – glycocalyx

- elementary membrane
- cytoskeleton
II. Cytoplasm – organelles
- includes
- hyaloplasm
III. Nucleus - nuclear
membrane
- chromatin
- karioplasm
 Membrane structure

Chemically cell membrane

consists of
 lipids (40%),
 proteins (>50%),
 oligosaccharides (5-10%).
 ELEMENTARY MEMBRANE
 polar heads directed outward
 non-polar tails directed toward
 PROTEINS
Integral proteins
Semiintegral proteins
Peripheral proteins
 GLYCOCALYX
Glycoproteins (external peripheral proteins)
Glycolipids
 CYTOSKELETON
• Internal peripheral proteins
• Microtubules
• Microfilaments
 Functions of the cell membrane
Maintaining the structural integrity
of the cell.
 Regulating of cellular interactions.
Recognition of antigens and foreign
cells.
Interface between the cytoplasm and
the external environment.
Movements of the cell (formation of
cilia, flagella).
Transport of substances into and from
the cell.
ZONULA (MACULA) OCCLUDENS
MACULA (ZONULA) ADHERENS
NEXUSES
 Classification of the organelles
Org Orga
a
nells nells

Genera Special Membranou Nonmembranous

l s
 Mitochondria  Neurofibrlls  Mitochondria  Ribosome
 Endoplasmic  Nissl  Lysosomes  Microtubules
reticulum bodies  Golgi  Cilia
 Golgi  Myofibrils complex  Flagella
complex  Cilia  Peroxisomes  Centrioles
 Lysosomes  Flagella Endoplasmic  Micro-
 Peroxisome reticulum filaments
s  Intermediate
 Centrioles filaments
 Ribosomes
 Mitochondria
outer membrane
inner
membrane

The inner membrane

projects folds,
termed cristae, into
the interior of the
mitochondrion.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
consists of tubules. On the cytoplasmic
surface of the endoplasmic
reticulum
there are ribosomes
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
is the membranous network.
It is concerned with steroid synthesis,
lipid metabolism and detoxication
processes.
 Goldgi complex

is composed of 3
smooth membrane-
limited
compartments:
1 - cisterns;
2 - vesicles;
3 - large vacuoles.
 Lysosomes
Lysosomes are
membrane-limited
spherical vesicles that
contain hydrolytic
enzymes.

Lysosomes
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary (residual
bodies)
Autophagosomes
 Ribosomes
are present in relation to rough endoplasmic reticulum
(fixed).
They may also lie free in the cytoplasm. They may
be present singly (monosomes) or in groups
(polysomes).
Each ribosome consists of proteins and RNA.
Ribosome contains 2 subunits of different
size.
Function - protein synthesis.
 Microtubules
are thin elongated elements
of cell cytoplasm; they are
circular in cross section with
diameter
of 24 nm.
The subunit of a microtubule
composed of α- and β-
tubulin molecules.
A total of 13 subunits are
present in one complete turn
of the spiral.
 Microtubules
provide the basis of several complex
of cytoplasm components,
including
● centrioles,
● basal bodies,
● cilia, and flagella.
 Centrioles

1. Centrioles and basal bodies are cylindrical structures which are 0.15–
0.25 um in diameter usually 0.3–0.7 um in length.
2. They are visible under a light microscope, but the details of the
centriole structure were revealed only under an electron microscope.
3. Each cell has a pair of centrioles in the centrosome, a region near the
nucleus. The members of each pair of centrioles are at right angles to
one another.
4. Each centriole consist of nine triplet of microtubules. The arrangement is,
therefore, called 9 + 0.
 Cilia and Flagella structure

• Contains nine pairs of microtubules forming the outside of a ring, and

two central microtubules. This structure is known as an axoneme, and
the arrangement as ‘9+2’. The microtubules are held together by
cross-linking proteins. Between the nine outer pairs are motor
proteins called dynein.
• The motor proteins (dynein) are large flexible molecules that allow to
be motile. The proteins hydrolyze ATP for energy. As the proteins are
activated, they undergo conformational changes which allow for
complex movements. The dynein molecules essentially crawl along
the microtubules, pulling the neighboring doublet up and reattaching
further down.
• The structures of cilia and flagella are actually pretty
similar. Both of these motile appendages attach to
the cell via a basal body (sometimes called a
kinetosome). They are also both made up
of microtubules, which are tubular proteins that
give the whole cell structure in the form of a
cytoskeleton.
• Cilia are very small structures – measuring
approximately 0.25 μm in diameter and up to 20 μm
in length. Where present they are found in large
numbers on the cell surface (respiratory system, in
the middle ear and the female reproductive tract).
• The only human cells that have flagella are
gametes
– sperm cells. Flagella helps them navigate toward
Cytoplasmic inclusions (deposits)
are temporary components of the
cytoplasm

Cytoplasmic inclusions
are subdivided in
 trophic,
 secretory,
 excretory,
 pigment
 The nucleus
The nucleus is an
essential
component of
nearly cells, and
takes a deep base
stain.
 The nucleus is
usually spherical;
oval in columnar
cells; flattened in
squamous cells; rod
shaped in smooth
muscle cells.
 The functions of the nucleus

Keeping of the genetic

information (in the molecules
of DNA).
Realization of the genetic
information.
Reproduction and transfer of
the genetic information
(during the cell division).
 The nucleus
has
3 parts:
 nuclear
membrane,
 chromatin,
 karioplas
ma
The nucleus
is surrounded by 2
parallel unit membrane
separated by a narrow
space called perinuclear
space.

Together, the paired

membranes and
intervening space
make
up the nuclear
membrane.

The outer layer of the

nucleus membrane is
continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum.
 Nuclear pores
contain 3 parallel rings
which are formed by 8
proteins subunits and 1
central protein.

From these subunits to

the center converge
fibrils, formed a
diaphragm.
 Chromatin
is little blue staining
particles within the
nucleus.
Chromatin is composed
of the
2-nm DNA double helix
bound to basic proteins
(histones).
 Types of chromatin
Heterochromatin is
inert and
inactive
Euchromatin is
active and directs
the cell activities
in the production
of protein
 Nucleola
is a place of formation of
ribosomes.
Ii is a spherical
basophilic structure,
rich in rRNA and
protein.
Components of
nucleolus:
 1. nucleolar organizer
DNA – sequences of
bases that code for  3. pars granulosa
rRNA; consists of granules
 2. pars fibrosa is (maturing
composed of primary ribosomes).
transcripts of RNA
genes;
 Mitosis
During mitosis, the parent cell
divides, and each of the daughter
cells receives a chromosomal
karyotype identical to that of
the parent cell.

Phases of mitosis:
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Telophase
 Prophase
 Condensation of chromosomes;
 individualization of chromosomes;
 initiation of mitotic spindle;
 rupture of nuclear envelope.
Metaphase (Aster
phase)
The chromosomes
migrate to the
equatorial plane
of the cell, where
each divides
longitudinally to
form two
chromatids
(metaphase
plate).
 Anaphase
 Longitudinal
splitting of
chromosomes and
migration to poles;
 Aggregation of
chromosomes at the
poles;
 Beginning of cell
division.
Two groups of
chromatids, now
chromosomes are
identical.
 Telophase
 Nuclear
restitution;
 Nuclear
envelope and
nucleolar
formation;
 End of
cell
division
 The cell cycle
is the time of existence of cell
from the division to the
division or from the division to
death.
It can be divided into two
stages:
● mitosis
● interphase.
 Interphase

isdivided into
three phases:
 G1
(presynthesis),
 S (DNA
synthesis),
 G2 (post-
DNA
duplication).
 Interphase
G1 phase
 RNA and protein synthesis
 restoration of the cell volume to
its normal size.
In cells that are not continuously
dividing, the cell activities may
be
temporary or permanently
suspended.
Cells in such a stage of development
(eg, muscle, nerve) are referred to as
being in a G0 phase.
 Interphase
S phase
 synthesis and replication of
DNA;
 replication centrioles
G2 phase
production and accumulation of
energy to be used during
mitosis;
the synthesis of tubulin to be
assembled in microtubules
during mitosis
 Endomitosis is a variety of mitosis
which doubling of number of
chromosomes into a nuclear
envelope without its destruction
and formation of spindle of
division.
Polyploidia is formation of cells
with increased maintenance of
DNA. It
is marked at repeated
endomitosises, may be result of
unfinished ordinary mitosises.
 Cell death

The two different mechanisms of

cell death are
necrosis and apoptosis.
 Necrosis
or accidental cell death, is a pathologic
process.
It occurs when cells are exposed to an
unfavorable physical or chemical
environment (e.g., hypothermia,
hypoxia, radiation, low pH, cell trauma)
that causes acute cellular injury and
damage to the plasma membrane.
Under physiologic conditions, damage to
the plasma membrane may also be
initiated by viruses, substances such as
complement, or proteins called perforins.
 Apoptosis
also referred to as programmed cell
death.
Apoptosis is the active genetic controlled
process of cellular death, which is
regulated by the internal program.
Apoptosis may occur during:
1) embryonic development
2) deleting of old cells
3)involution of mature tissues
(follicular atresia in the ovaries)
4) the immune reactions
5) tumor growth
 Discussion questions
The focus knob is not readjusted when changing the magnification in a good
compound microscope. What is this phenomenon called?

What structure connects the eyepiece to the objective lens on a

microscope?

What is another name for the light microscope?

What microscope does not rely on visible light?

What is the turret of microscope?

What is the total magnification achieved with a compound microscope?

 Literature list
• 1. Gartner L.P., Hiatt J.L.: Color Atlas and Text of Histology.
• 6th edition. Wolters Kluwer, 2014.
• 2. Ross M., Pawlina W.: Histology: a Text and Atlas with
• Correlated Cell and Molecular Biology. 8th edition. Wolters
• Kluwer, 2018.
• 3. Young B., Woodford P., O´Dowd G.: Wheater´s
Functional
• Histology. A text and colour atlas. 6th edition, Churchill
• Livingstone, 2013.
• 4. Sadler T.: Langman´s Medical Embryology, 13th edition,
• Wolters Kluwer 2014
• 5. Moore K.L., Persaud T.V.N., Torchia M.G.: Before We Are
• Born, 9th Edition. Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2016.
• 6. Moore K.L., Persaud T.V.N., Torchia M.G.: The Developing
• Human, 10th Edition. Clinically Oriented Embryology.
• Elsevier, Philadelphia, 2016.
Contact
Yakushko Olena,
PhD, Associate Professor, Department of
Histology, Cytology and Embryology

e-mail: [email protected]