Chapter 3

Storage

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 Learning Objectives

• Name several general characteristics of storage systems.

• Describe the three most common types of hard drives
and what they are used for today.
• Discuss the various types of optical discs available today
and how they differ from each other.
• Identify some flash memory storage devices and media
and explain how they are used today.
• List at least three other types of storage systems.
• Summarize the storage alternatives for a typical personal
computer.

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 Overview

• This chapter covers:

– The characteristics common among all storage systems
– The primary storage for most personal computers—the
hard drive
– How optical discs work and the various types that are
available today
– Flash memory storage systems
– Network and cloud storage, smart cards, and the storage
systems used with large computer systems
– Storage alternatives for a typical personal computer

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 Storage System Characteristics

• A storage system consists of a storage medium and a

storage device
– The storage medium is the hardware where data is stored
• DVD disc, flash memory card, etc.
– The storage device is the hardware into which the storage
medium is inserted
• DVD drive, flash memory card reader, etc.
• Can be internal, external, or remote
• Storage devices are typically identified by letter
– Some storage media is removable; some is not

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 Examples of Storage Device
Identifiers

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 Volatility and Random vs. Sequential
Access
• Volatility
– Storage media are nonvolatile and, therefore, is used for
data to be saved for later use
• Random vs. sequential access
– Random access (direct access) allows data to be retrieved
from any location on the storage medium
• Virtually all storage devices use random access
– Sequential access means that retrieval of data can occur
only in the order in which it was physically stored on the
storage medium; for example, a magnetic tape drive

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 Files, Filenames, and Folders

• A file is anything stored on a storage medium, such as a

program, document, digital image, or song
• A filename is a name given to a file by the user
• A folder is a named place on a storage medium
into which files can be stored

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 Logical vs. Physical Representation and
Types of Storage Technologies Used
• Logical file representation
– Individuals view a document stored as one complete unit
in a particular folder on a particular drive
• Physical file representation
– Computers access a particular document stored on a
storage medium using its physical location or locations
• Types of storage technology
– Magnetic (conventional hard drives)
– Optical (optical discs)
– Electrons (flash memory media)

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 Hard Drives

• A hard drive stores most programs and data for a

personal computer
– Can be internal or external
– Available with built-in encryption that limits access to only
authorized users

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 Magnetic Hard Drives

• A magnetic hard drive or hard disk drive (HDD) contains

particles on the metal disks inside the drive that are
magnetized to represent the data’s 0s and 1s

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 Magnetic Hard Drives (cont’d)

• One or more metal hard disks are permanently sealed

inside the drive along with an access mechanism and
read/write heads

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 Hard Disk Organization

• Tracks are concentric paths on the disk where data is

recorded
• Sectors are small pieces of a track
• Clusters consist of one or more sectors
• Smallest addressable area of a disk
• Cylinders are a collection of tracks located in the same
location on a set of hard disk surfaces

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 Examples of Tracks, Sectors, Clusters,
and Cylinders

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 Magnetic Hard Drive Technologies

• Traditional: Longitudinal magnetic recording aligns

magnetic particles on a hard disk horizontally, parallel to
the hard disk’s surface
• Newer: Perpendicular magnetic recording (PMR) places
bits upright and closer together to increase capacity and
reliability
• Newest: Shingled magnetic recording (SMR) squeezes
more data onto disks by overlapping the data tracks on
them like the shingles on a roof
• Emerging: Heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR) uses
lasers to temporarily heat the surface of the hard disks
when storing data in order to store more data
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 How It Works

More Storage for Your Tablet

• Tablets often have between
16 GB and 128 GB of storage
• To extend storage, you can
transfer content to and from
desktops or notebooks
• Easier to use a wireless hard
drive and Wi-Fi
– Download the
appropriate app
The 2 TB Seagate Wireless Plus
magnetic hard drive.

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 Inside the Industry

Data Recovery Experts

• Recover data from damaged storage devices
• Used when devices are physically damaged or just stop
working
• It is important to back up data to prevent data loss

Data recovery. The data on this destroyed computer (left) was recovered by
data recovery experts in a clean room (right).
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16
 Solid-State Drives (SSDs)

• A solid-state drive (SSD) uses

flash memory technology to store
data
– Uses less power and has no
moving parts
– Much faster than magnetic
hard drives, but more
expensive
– The norm for netbooks,
mobile devices, and other
portable devices

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 Solid-State Hybrid Drives (SSHDs)

• A solid-state hybrid drive

(SSHD) or hybrid drive uses a
combination of magnetic disks
and flash memory chips
– The data that is most
directly associated with
performance is stored in the
flash memory
– Nearly as fast as solid-state
drives (SSDs)
– Slightly more expensive than
magnetic hard disk drives
(HDDs)
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 Internal and External Hard Drives

• Internal hard drives are permanent storage devices

located inside the system unit
– Removed only if a problem develops
• External hard drives transport large amounts of data from
one computer to another, for backup, and for additional
storage
– Full-sized external hard drives are often used for backup
– Portable external hard drives: smaller and easier to
transport
– Most connect with a USB connection, although some may
connect through wired or wireless networking connections
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 Examples of External Hard Drives

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 Hard Drive Speed and Disk Caching

• Disk access time is the total time that it takes for a hard
drive to read or write data
• Consists of seek time, rotational delay, and data
movement time
• SSDs don’t require seek time or rotational delays
• Disk cache consists of memory used in conjunction with
a magnetic hard drive to improve system performance
– Typically consists of RAM-based disk cache located inside
the hard drive case
– Can speed up performance and save battery life

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 Hard Drive Partitioning

• Partitioning divides the physical capacity of a single drive

logically into separate areas, called partitions
– Each partition functions as an independent hard drive
– Referred to as logical drives
– Increases efficiency (smaller drives use smaller clusters)
• Partitions are used to create:
– A recovery partition
– A new logical drive
for data
– A dual boot system

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 Hard Drive File Systems and Interface
Standards
• File system determines the partition size, cluster size,
maximum drive size, and maximum file size
– FAT, FAT32, and NTFS
• Interface standards determine how a drive connects to the
computer
• Common standards
– Serial ATA (SATA): most common internal hard drive interface
standard
– Serial attached SCSI (SAS)
– Fibre Channel
– Internet SCSI (iSCSI)
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 Quick Quiz (1)

1. Of the following three options, the storage media that would

likely hold the most data is a(n) __________.
a. HDD
b. USB flash drive
c. SSD
2. True or False: SSDs are subject to mechanical failures just like
magnetic hard drives.
3. The circular rings on a magnetic disk on which data is stored
are called __________.

Answers:
1) a; 2) False; 3) tracks
Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, 15th Edition
24
 Optical Discs

• Optical discs are thin circular plastic discs

– Are read from and written to using laser beams
– Are commonly used for software delivery
– Divided into sectors like magnetic discs but use a single
spiral track (groove)
– Have a relatively large capacity and are durable
– Used for backup purposes and for storing and transporting
music, photos, video, etc.

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 Representing Data on an Optical Disc

• Pits and lands are used to represent 1s and 0s

• The transition between a pit and a land represents a 1;
no transition represents a 0
• Read-only optical disc
– Surface of disc is molded or stamped to represent data
• Recordable or rewritable disc
– The reflectivity of the disc is changed using a laser beam to
represent the data
– Different types of optical discs use different types of laser
beams

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 How Recorded Optical Discs Work

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 Optical Drives

• Optical discs are read by optical drives

– The optical drive must support the type
of optical disc being used
– Almost always backward-compatible
– Recording data onto a optical disc is
called burning; requires burning software
– Optical drives can be internal or external
• External drives typically connect via
USB port
• External drives can be used with
netbooks and other devices without
an optical drive
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 Optical Disc Shapes, Sizes, and
Capacities
• Standard size is 120-mm (about 4.7 inches)
– Mini discs are smaller (about 3 inches)
• Theoretically can be made into various shapes, but
patent battle has resulted in custom shapes not being
available
• Clear background
is sometimes used
to make a disc
look custom
shaped

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 Advantage of Optical Discs

• Major advantage: Large capacity

– CD discs are normally single layer and hold 700 MB
– DVD discs hold 4.7 GB (single-layer) or 8.5 GB (dual-layer)
– BD discs hold 25 GB (single-layer) or 50 GB (dual-layer)
– BDXL standard uses even more layers to boost capacity up
to 128 GB
– Newest BD discs are Ultra HD Blu-ray discs that hold up to
100 GB and are designed to deliver Ultra HD (4K) movies
– Discs can also be double-sided
• Read on one side at a time; must be turned over to
access the second side
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 Summary of Optical Discs

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 Read-Only Optical Discs: CD-ROM,
DVD-ROM, and BD-ROM Discs
• CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, and BD-ROM discs can be written
to, but not erased and reused
– Pits are permanent
– CD-ROM and DVD-ROM discs come prerecorded with
software, music, movies, etc.
– BD-ROM discs come prerecorded with movies
• Ultra HD Blu-ray discs can be used for 4K movies
– Additional proprietary read-only discs
• Gaming systems like Wii, Xbox, PlayStation, etc.

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 Recordable Optical Discs: CD-R, DVD-R,
DVD+R, and BD-R Discs
• CD-R, DVD-R, DVD+R, and BD-R discs can be written to,
but cannot be erased and reused
– Pits are created in the disc when the disc is recorded
– Most discs have a recording layer containing organic light-
sensitive dye between disc’s plastic and reflective layers
• BD-R discs use inorganic material instead
– DVD-R DL and DVD+R DL are dual-layer discs
– BD-R DL discs are dual-layer discs; BD-R XL use 3 or 4 layers
– Used for backing up files, sending large files to others, and
storing multimedia files

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 Rewritable Optical Discs: CD-RW, DVD-
RW, DVD+RW, and BD-RE Discs
• CD-RW, DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and BD-RE discs can be
written to, erased, and overwritten just like magnetic
hard disks
– Uses phase change technology
• Heating and cooling process is used to change the
reflectivity of the disc
– The capacities are the same as their read-only and
recordable counterparts
– Appropriate for transferring large files from one computer
to another or otherwise temporarily storing data (disc can
be reused)

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 Trend

Ultra HD (4K)
• Is the next big step in high-definition (HD)
TVs and content
• Four times the resolution of ordinary HD
• Requires four times as much data as
regular HD video
• Many Internet connections are not fast
enough to support the large amounts of
data required for 4K quality An example of a 4K movie.
• Available for those individuals who have
the speed and bandwidth to support it;
also available on Ultra HD discs
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 Quick Quiz (2)

1. The capacity of the standard DVD disc is _____.

a. 50 GB
b. 650 MB
c. 4.7 GB
2. True or False: A DVD-RW disc can be written to and rewritten to.
3. The tiny depressions, dark areas, or otherwise altered spots on
an optical disc that are used to represent data are called
__________.

Answers:
1) c; 2) True; 3) pits

Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, 15th Edition

36
 Flash Memory Storage Systems

• Flash memory is a chip-based storage medium that

represents data using electrons
– Used in a variety of storage systems
• Embedded flash memory refers to flash memory chips
embedded into products
– Smartphones, tablets, smart watches, and even sunglasses
and wristwatches
– Usually the primary storage for mobile devices such as
tablets and smartphones

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 Examples of Embedded Flash
Memory

This tablet contains 64 GB of embedded flash An embedded flash memory chip.

memory.
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 Flash Memory Cards and Readers

• A flash memory card is a small card containing one or more flash

memory chips, a controller chip, and metal contacts to connect
the card to the device or reader being used
– Available in a variety of formats; these formats are not
interchangeable
– Secure Digital (SD) is one of the most widely used types of flash
memory media
– Most common type of storage media for digital cameras,
smartphones, and other portable devices
• Many devices today have a built-in flash memory card reader; an
external reader via USB port is also used
• Adapters allow the use of smaller flash memory cards in a larger
slot of the same type (microSD to SD, etc.)
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 Examples of Flash Memory Cards,
Readers, and Adapters

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 Flash Memory Cards

• General-purpose flash memory

card
– Appropriate for most
applications
• Specialized flash memory cards
– Professional flash memory
cards
– Gaming flash memory cards
– Encrypted flash memory cards
• Project Vault is a computer
on a flash memory card

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 USB Flash Drives

• USB flash drives (USB drives or flash drives) consist of

flash memory media integrated into a self-contained unit
that plugs into and is powered by a USB port
– Designed to be very small and very portable
– Available in a host of formats
• Low-profile drives, custom shapes, micro drives, etc.
– Can be built into a consumer product
– Additional related hardware becoming available
• USB duplicator systems

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 Examples of USB Flash Drives

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 Technology and You

Tiny PCs
• The size of a USB flash drive
• Typically connect to a TV via an
HDMI port
• May also have built-in storage and
a microSD
• Capabilities vary; smart TVs can
display and stream Internet
content
• The newest tiny PCs are fully Intel Compute Stick

functioning “computers-on-a-
stick”
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 Quick Quiz (3)

1. Flash memory cards are available today in capacities up to

_____.
a. 64 GB
b. 512 MB
c. 1 TB
2. True or False: Flash memory is the primary storage for mobile
devices such as tablets and smartphones.
3. The most common type of flash memory card today is the
__________ card.

Answers:
1) c; 2) True; 3) SD
Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, 15th Edition
45
 Other Types of Storage Systems

• Remote storage refers to using a storage device that is

not connected directly to the user’s computer
• Network storage: Using a storage device via a local
network
– Works in much the same way as using local storage
– Network attached storage (NAS) devices are high
performance storage systems connected individually to a
network
– A storage area network (SAN) consist of separate network
of hard drives or other storage devices that are attached to
the main network
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 Examples of Network Storage

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 Cloud Storage

• Cloud storage (online storage) is accessed via the

Internet
– Cloud applications (Flickr, Facebook, Google Docs, etc.)
– Online storage sites (Box, Dropbox, OneDrive, etc.)
– Growing in importance because more and more
applications are Web-based
– Increasingly used for backup purposes
– Files can be synched between PC and cloud storage
– Many online storage sites offer some free storage
– Business cloud storage is available; businesses can also
create private clouds
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 Example of Cloud Storage

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 Smart Cards

• A smart card is a credit card-sized piece of plastic that

contains some computer circuitry (processor, memory,
and storage)
– Stores a small amount of data (about 64 KB or less)
– Commonly used to store prepaid amounts of digital cash
or personal information
– Smart card readers are built into or attached to a
computer, door lock, vending machine, or other device
– Some smart cards store biometric data
– Use of mobile smart cards is an emerging trend

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 Examples of Uses for Smart Cards

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 Storage Systems for Large Computer
Systems
• Business storage needs are growing exponentially
– Digital data produced is expected to double every two
years through 2020
• A storage server contains multiple high-speed hard drives
– Larger than typical NASs
– Usually contain drawers of hard drives
– Typically use fast Fibre Channel or iSCSI connections
– Scalable so that more hard drives can be added as needed
– Can use magnetic and/or SSD drives

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 Example of a Large Storage Systems

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 RAID

• RAID (redundant arrays of independent discs) is a

method of storing data on two or more hard drives that
work together to record redundant copies
– Used to protect critical data on large storage systems
– Helps to increase fault tolerance
– Different levels of RAID:
• RAID 0 = disk striping (spread files over two or more
hard drives)
• RAID 1 = disk mirroring (duplicate copy)
• Other levels use a combination or striping and mirror

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 Two Primary RAID Techniques

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 Newer RAID Systems

• New storage systems are easier to set up and maintain so

dedicated RAID personnel are not needed
– For example, the Drobo system:
• Connects to a computer or a network via a USB cable
• Contains drive bays into which hard drives can be
inserted
• Has capacity and status indicators – drives can be
inserted and removed
as needed

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 Archival Storage Systems

• Data archiving is the process of identifying and moving

data that is no longer actively being used from regular
storage systems to a separate long-term archival storage
system
• Options for data archival systems:
– Large hard drives, such as a helium hard drive (10 TB)
– Magnetic tape
• Typically cartridge tapes; can be tape libraries
– Higher capacity, archival Blu-ray Discs that are becoming
available; so are optical jukeboxes
– Cloud storage
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 Examples of Data Archiving Options

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 Evaluating Your Storage Alternatives

• Product characteristics to consider:

– Speed, compatibility, storage capacity, convenience, and
portability
• Each storage alternative normally involves trade-offs
• Research which devices and media are most appropriate
to your personal devices
• All computers need at least one convenient USB port
• Mobile device users
– Fewer options for storage alternatives
– Require appropriate wireless connectivity

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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 59
 Quick Quiz (4)

1. An online photo sharing site is an example of __________.

a. RAID
b. cloud storage
c. holographic storage
2. True or False: Smart cards today typically hold at least 1.44
MB of data.
3. A type of sequential storage that is sometimes used today for
business data archiving and in some backup systems because
of its low cost per terabyte is __________.

Answers:
1) b; 2) False; 3) magnetic tape
Understanding Computers: Today and Tomorrow, 15th Edition
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 Summary

• Storage Systems Characteristics

• Hard drives
• Optical Discs And Drives
• Flash Memory Storage Systems
• Other Types of Storage Systems
• Evaluating Your Storage Alternatives

© 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as
permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 61