Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals

Chapter 2 – Combinational
Logic Circuits
Part 1 – Gate Circuits and Boolean Equations
Overview
 Part 1 – Gate Circuits and Boolean Equations
2-1 Binary Logic and Gates
2-2 Boolean Algebra
2-3 Standard Forms
 Part 2 – Circuit Optimization
2-4 Two-Level Optimization
2-5 Map Manipulation
2-6 Pragmatic Two-Level Optimization (Espresso)
2-7 Multi-Level Circuit Optimization
 Part 3 – Additional Gates and Circuits
2-8 Other Gate Types
2-9 Exclusive-OR Operator and Gates
2-10 High-Impedance Outputs

Chapter 2 - Part 1 2
2-1 Binary Logic and Gates
 Digital circuits are hardware components
(based on transistors) that manipulate
binary information
 We model the transistor-based electronic
circuits as logic gates.
• Designer can ignore the internal electronics of a
gate

Chapter 2 - Part 1 3
Binary Logic
 Binary variables take on one of two values.
 Logical operators operate on binary values and
binary variables.
 Basic logical operators are the logic functions
AND, OR and NOT.
 Logic gates implement logic functions.
 Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical system
for specifying and transforming logic functions.
 We study Boolean algebra as a foundation for
designing and analyzing digital systems!
Chapter 2 - Part 1 4
Binary Variables
 Recall that the two binary values have
different names:
• True/False
• On/Off
• Yes/No
• 1/0
 We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.
 Variable identifier examples:
• A, B, y, z, or X1 for now
• RESET, START_IT, or ADD1 later

Chapter 2 - Part 1 5
Logical Operations
 The three basic logical operations are:
• AND
• OR
• NOT
 AND is denoted by a dot (·).
 OR is denoted by a plus (+).
 NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a
single quote mark (') after, or (~) before
the variable.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 6
Notation Examples
 Examples:
• Y  A  B is read “Y is equal to A AND B.”
• z  x  y is read “z is equal to x OR y.”
• X  A is read “X is equal to NOT A.”
 Note: The statement:
1 + 1 = 2 (read “one plus one equals two”)
is not the same as
1 + 1 = 1 (read “1 or 1 equals 1”).

Chapter 2 - Part 1 7
 Operator Definitions
 Operations are defined on the values
"0" and "1" for each operator:

OR NOT
 
AND
0·0=0 0+0=0 01
0·1=0 0+1=1 10
1·0=0 1+0=1
1·1=1 1+1=1

Chapter 2 - Part 1 8
 Truth Tables
 Truth table  a tabular listing of the values of a
function for all possible combinations of values on its
arguments
 Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations:
AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X ZX
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Chapter 2 - Part 1 9
Logic Function Implementation
 Using Switches Switches in parallel => OR
• For inputs:
 logic 1 is switch closed
 logic 0 is switch open
• For outputs: Switches in series => AND
 logic 1 is light on
 logic 0 is light off.
• NOT uses a switch such
that: Normally-closed switch => NOT
 logic 1 is switch open C
 logic 0 is switch closed

Chapter 2 - Part 1 10
Logic Function Implementation (Continued)
 Example: Logic Using Switches
B C
A

D
 Light is on (L = 1) for
L(A, B, C, D) =
and off (L = 0), otherwise.
 Useful model for relay circuits and for CMOS
gate circuits, the foundation of current digital
logic technology
Chapter 2 - Part 1 11
Logic Gates
 In the earliest computers, switches were opened
and closed by magnetic fields produced by
energizing coils in relays. The switches in turn
opened and closed the current paths.
 Later, vacuum tubes that open and close current
paths electronically replaced relays.
 Today, transistors are used as electronic
switches that open and close current paths.
 Optional: Chapter 6 – Part 1: The Design
Space

Chapter 2 - Part 1 12
Logic Gate Symbols and Behavior
 Logic gates have special symbols:

Chapter 2 - Part 1 13
Gate Delay
 In actual physical gates, if one or more input
changes causes the output to change, the output
change does not occur instantaneously.
 The delay between an input change(s) and the
resulting output change is the gate delay
denoted by tG:
1
Input
0
tG tG tG = 0.3 ns
1
Output
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (ns)
Chapter 2 - Part 1 14
AND and OR gates with more than two
inputs

Chapter 2 - Part 1 15
2-2 Boolean Algebra
 Boolean expression: a expression formed by
binary variables, for example, DX  A
 Boolean function: a binary variable
identifying the function followed by an
equal sign and a Boolean expression for
example
L( D, X , A)  DX  A

Chapter 2 - Part 1 16
Truth table and Logic circuit

For the Boolean function

L( D, X , A)  DX  A

Fig. 2.3 Logic Circuit Diagram

Chapter 2 - Part 1 17
 Basic identities of Boolean Algebra
 An algebraic structure defined on a set of at least two elements
together with three binary operators (denoted +, · and - ) that
satisfies the following basic identities:

1. X+0= X 2. X .1 =X
3. X+1 =1 4. X .0 =0
5. X+X =X 6. X .X = X
7. X+X =1 8. X .X = 0
9. X=X
10. X + Y = Y + X 11. XY = YX Commutative
12. (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z) 13. (XY) Z = X(YZ) Associative
14. X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ 15. X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z) Distributive
16. X + Y = X . Y 17. X . Y = X + Y DeMorgan’s

Chapter 2 - Part 1 18
 Truth Table to Verify DeMorgan’s
Theorem

Extension of DeMorgan’s Theorem:

X1  X 2    X n  X 1 X 2  X n
Some Properties of Identities & the Algebra

 If the meaning is unambiguous, we leave out the symbol “·”

 The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by

interchanging + and · and interchanging 0’s and 1’s.
 The identities appear in dual pairs. When there is only
one identity on a line the identity is self-dual, i. e., the
dual expression = the original expression.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 20
Some Properties of Identities & the Algebra
(Continued)

 Unless it happens to be self-dual, the dual of an

expression does not equal the expression itself.
 Example: F = (A + C) · B + 0
dual F = (A · C + B) · 1 = A · C + B
 Example: G = X · Y + (W + Z)
dual G =
 Example: H = A · B + A · C + B · C
dual H =
 Are any of these functions self-dual?
Chapter 2 - Part 1 21
Boolean Operator Precedence
 The order of evaluation in a Boolean
expression is:
1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 22
Boolean Algebraic Manipulation

F  XYZ  XYZ  XZ
 XY ( Z  Z )  XZ
 XY  XZ

Fig. 2-4

Chapter 2 - Part 1 23
Boolean Algebraic Manipulation
 AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification (identity or theorem)
AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + 1 · BC ?
= AB +AC + (A + A) · BC ?
=

What is the duality?

Chapter 2 - Part 1 24
Example: Complementing Function

F1  XYZ  XY Z
F2  X (Y Z  YZ )

F1  ?
F2  ?

 By DeMorgan’s Theorem (Example 2-2)

 By duality (Example 2-3)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 25
2-3 Canonical Forms
 It is useful to specify Boolean functions in
a form that:
• Allows comparison for equality.
• Has a correspondence to the truth tables
 Canonical Forms in common usage:
• Sum of Minterms (SOM)
• Product of Maxterms (POM)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 26
Minterms
 Minterms are AND terms with every variable
present in either true or complemented form.
 Given that each binary variable may appear
normal (e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there
are 2n minterms for n variables.
 Example: Two variables (X and Y)produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
XY (both normal)
X Y (X normal, Y complemented)
XY (X complemented, Y normal)
X Y (both complemented)
 Thus there are four minterms of two variables.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 27
Maxterms
 Maxterms are OR terms with every variable in
true or complemented form.
 Given that each binary variable may appear
normal (e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there
are 2n maxterms for n variables.
 Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
X  Y (both normal)
X  Y (x normal, y complemented)
X  Y (x complemented, y normal)
X  Y (both complemented)
Chapter 2 - Part 1 28
Maxterms and Minterms
 Examples: Two variable minterms and
maxterms.
Index Minterm Maxterm
0 xy x+y
1 xy x+y
2 xy x+y
3 xy x+y
 The index above is important for describing
which variables in the terms are true and which
are complemented.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 29
Minterms for three variables

Chapter 2 - Part 1 30
Maxterms for three variables

Chapter 2 - Part 1 31
Minterm and Maxterm Relationship
 Review: DeMorgan's Theorem
x · y  x  y and x  y  x  y
 Two-variable example:
M2  x  y and m2  x·y
Thus M2 is the complement of m2 and vice-versa.
 Since DeMorgan's Theorem holds for n variables,
the above holds for terms of n variables
 giving:
Mi  mi and mi  Mi
Thus Mi is the complement of mi.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 32
Function Tables for Both
 Minterms of Maxterms of
2 variables 2 variables
xy m0 m1 m2 m3 x y M0 M1 M2 M3
00 1 0 0 0 00 0 1 1 1
01 0 1 0 0 01 1 0 1 1
10 0 0 1 0 10 1 1 0 1
11 0 0 0 1 11 1 1 1 0

 Each column in the maxterm function table is the

complement of the column in the minterm function
table since Mi is the complement of mi.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 33
Observations
 In the function tables:
• Each minterm has one and only one 1 present in the 2n terms (a minimum of
1s). All other entries are 0.
• Each maxterm has one and only one 0 present in the 2n terms All other
entries are 1 (a maximum of 1s).
 We can implement any function by "ORing" the minterms
corresponding to "1" entries in the function table. These are called
the minterms of the function.
 We can implement any function by "ANDing" the maxterms
corresponding to "0" entries in the function table. These are called
the maxterms of the function.
 This gives us two canonical forms:
• Sum of Minterms (SOM)
• Product of Maxterms (POM)
for stating any Boolean function.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 34
Conversion of Minterm and
Maxterm
F  XY Z  XYZ  XY Z  XYZ  m0  m2  m5  m7   m(0, 2, 5, 7)
F  XY Z  XYZ  XY Z  XYZ  m1  m3  m4  m6   m(1, 3, 4, 6)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 35
 Conversion of Minterm and
Maxterm

F  m1  m3  m4  m6
 F  m1  m3  m4  m6  m1  m3  m4  m6

 F  M 1  M 3  M 4  M 6  ( X  Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )
  M (1, 3, 4, 6)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 36
 Canonical Sum of Minterms
 Any Boolean function can be expressed as a
Sum of Minterms.
• For the function table, the minterms used are the
terms corresponding to the 1's
• For expressions, expand all terms first to explicitly
list all minterms. Do this by “ANDing” any term
missing a variable v with a term (v  v ).
 Example: Implement f  x  x y as a sum of
minterms.
First expand terms: f  x ( y  y )  x y
Then distribute terms: f  xy  x y  x y
Express as sum of minterms: f = m3 + m2 + m0

Chapter 2 - Part 1 37
Another SOM Example
Expand by using truth table

E  Y  XZ
According to truth table Table 2-8,

E  m(0,1,2,4,5)   M (???)

Chapter 2 - Part 1 38
Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
 A sum of minterms form for n variables
can be written down directly from a truth
table.
• Implementation of this form is a two-level
network of gates such that:
• The first level consists of n-input AND gates,
and
• The second level is a single OR gate (with
fewer than 2n inputs).
 This form often can be simplified so that
the corresponding circuit is simpler.
Chapter 2 - Part 1 39
Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
Example: F  Y  XYZ  XY

Fig. 2-5

 a two-level implementation/two-level circuit

Product-of-Sums (POS): F  X (Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )

What’s the implementation?

Chapter 2 - Part 1 40
Convert non-SOP expression to SOP
expression

F  AB  C ( D  E )  AB  CD  CE

 The decision whether to use a two-level or multiple-level

implementation is complex.
 no. of gates
No. of gate inputs
 amount of time delay

Chapter 2 - Part 1 41
Simplification of two-level implementation of
SOP expression
 The two implementations for F are shown
below – it is quite apparent which is simpler!

A
F
B
C

Chapter 2 - Part 1 42
SOP and POS Observations
 The previous examples show that:
• Canonical Forms (Sum-of-minterms, Product-of-
Maxterms), or other standard forms (SOP, POS)
differ in complexity
• Boolean algebra can be used to manipulate
equations into simpler forms.
• Simpler equations lead to simpler two-level
implementations
 Questions:
• How can we attain a “simplest” expression?
• Is there only one minimum cost circuit?
• The next part will deal with these issues.

Chapter 2 - Part 1 43