Communication Receivers

Chapter 8

PC – Principles of Communications
Source: Principles of Electronic Communication Systems
By: Freznel L., 3rd Edition

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 1

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Topics Covered in Chapter 1
 8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
 8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers
 8-3: Frequency Conversion
 8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images
 8-5: Noise
 8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits
 8-7: Receivers and Transceivers

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 2

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Introduction

 In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal is

very weak when it reaches the receiver, particularly when
it has traveled over a long distance.

 The signal, which has shared the free-space transmission

media with thousands of other radio signals, has also
picked up noise of various kinds.

 Radio receivers must provide the sensitiv­ity and

selectivity that permit full recovery of the original
intelligence signal.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 3

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Introduction (cont’d)

 The radio receiver best suited to this task is known as the

superheterodyne receiver.

 Invented in the early 1900s, the superheterodyne is used

today in most electronic communication systems.

 This chapter reviews the basic principles of signal

reception and discusses various superheterodyne circuits
including direct conversion.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 4

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Learning Objectives
 After completing this module, the learners should
be able to:

1. List the benefits of a superheterodyne over a TRF receiver

and identify the function of each component of a
superheterodyne, including all selectivity functions.

2. Express the relationship between the IF, local oscillator,

and signal frequencies mathematically and calculate any
one of them, given the other two.

3. Explain how the design of dual-conversion receivers allows

them to enhance selectivity and eliminate image problems.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 5

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Learning Objectives (cont’d)

 After completing this module, the learners

should be able to:

4. Describe the operation of the most common types of

mixer circuits.

5. Explain the architecture and operation of direct

conversion and software defined radios.

6. List the major types of external and internal noise and

explain how each interferes with signals both before and
after they reach the receiver.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 6

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Learning Objectives (cont’d)

 After completing this module, the learners

should be able to:

7. Calculate the noise factor, noise figure, and noise

temperature of a receiver.

8. Describe the operation and purpose of the AGC circuit in

a receiver.

9. Explain the operation of squelch circuits.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 7

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction

 In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal is very

weak when it reaches the receiver, particularly when it has
traveled over a long distance.

 The signal has also picked up noise of various kinds.

 Receivers must provide the sensitivity and selectivity that

permit full recovery of the original signal.

 The radio receiver best suited to this task is known as the

superheterodyne receiver.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 8

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)

 A communication receiver must be able to identify and select a

desired signal from the thousands of others present in the
frequency spectrum (selectivity) and to provide sufficient
amplification to recover the modulating signal (sensitivity).

 A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired signal

and greatly attenuate other signals.

 A receiver with good sensitivity involves high circuit gain.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 9

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)
Selectivity: Q and Bandwidth

 Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by using tuned circuits

and/or filters.

 LC tuned circuits provide initial selectivity.

 Filters provide additional selectivity.

 By controlling the Q of a resonant circuit, you can set the

desired selectivity.

 The optimum bandwidth is one that is wide enough to pass

the signal and its sidebands but narrow enough to
eliminate signals on adjacent frequencies.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 10

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)

Figure 9-1:
Selectivity curve of a tuned circuit.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 11

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)

Selectivity: Shape Factor

 The sides of a tuned circuit response curve are known as

skirts.

 The steepness of the skirts, or the skirt selectivity, of a

receiver is expressed as the shape factor, the ratio of the
60-dB down bandwidth to the 6-dB down bandwidth.

 The lower the shape factor, the steeper the skirts and the
better the selectivity.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 12

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)
Selectivity: Shape Factor

Figure 9-2 Receiver selectivity response curves.

(a) Ideal response curve. (b) Practical response curve showing shape factor.
Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 13
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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)

Sensitivity

 A communication receiver’s sensitivity, or ability to pick up

weak signals, is a function of overall gain, the factor by
which an input signal is multiplied to produce the output
signal.

 The higher the gain of a receiver, the better its sensitivity.

 The more gain that a receiver has, the smaller the input
signal necessary to produce a desired level of output.

 High gain in receivers is obtained by using multiple

amplification stages.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 14

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)
Sensitivity

 Another factor that affects the sensitivity of a receiver is the

signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR).

 One method of expressing the sensitivity of a receiver is to

establish the minimum discernible signal (MDS).

 The MDS is the input signal level that is approximately equal

to the average internally generated noise value.

 This noise value is called the noise floor of the receiver.

 MDS is the amount of signal that would produce the same

audio power output as the noise floor signal.

 The MDS is usually expressed in dBm.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 15

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)

Sensitivity

Figure 8-3
Illustrating noise, MDS, and receiver sensitivity.
Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 16
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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
 Sensitivity (cont’d)
 There is no one fixed way to define sensitivity.

 For analog signals, the signal-to­-noise ratio is the main consideration in analog signals.

 For digital signal transmission, the bit error rare (BER) is the main consideration. BER is the number of errors made in the
transmission of many serial data bits.

 For example. one measure is that the sensitiv­ity is such that the BER is 10-10 or 1 bit error in every I 0 billion bits transmitted.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 17

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
 Sensitivity (cont’d)
A typical sensitivity figure might be 1 mV input. The lower this fig­ure, the better the sensitivity.

Good communication receivers typically have a sensitivity of 0.2 to 1 mV.

Consumer AM and FM receivers designed for receiving strong local sta­tions have much lower sensitivity.

Typical FM receivers have sensitivities of 5 to 10 V;

AM receivers can have sensitivities of 100 V or higher.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 18

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)

Basic Receiver Configuration

 The simplest radio receiver is a crystal set consisting of a

tuned circuit, a diode (crystal) detector, and earphones.

 The tuned circuit provides the selectivity.

 The diode and a capacitor serve as an AM demodulator.

 The earphones reproduce the recovered audio signal.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 19

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)

Basic Receiver Configuration

Figure 9-4: The simplest receiver—a crystal set.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 20

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)

Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

 In the tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver sensitivity is

improved by adding a number of stages of RF amplification
between the antenna and detector, followed by stages of
audio amplification.

 The RF amplifier stages increase the gain before it is applied

to the detector.

 The recovered signal is amplified further by audio amplifiers,

which provide sufficient gain to operate a loudspeaker.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 21

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

Figure 9-5: Tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 22
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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

 Many RF amplifiers use multiple tuned circuits.

 Whenever resonant LC circuits tuned to the same frequency are
cascaded, overall selectivity is improved.
 The greater the number of tuned stages cascaded, the narrower
the bandwidth and the steeper the skirts.
 The main problem with TRF receivers is tracking the tuned
circuits.
 In a receiver, the tuned circuits must be made variable so that
they can be set to the frequency of the desired signal.
 Another problem with TRF receivers is that selectivity varies with
frequency.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 23

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8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

Figure 8-6
The effect of cascading tuned circuits on selectivity.
Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 24
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 8-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
(cont’d)
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

An example of a single-
chip UHF receiver using
multiple untuned RF
amplifiers to obtain the
desired gain and an
external SAW filter.

Figure 8-7
A single-IC UHF TRF receiver using a SAW filter.
Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 25
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8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers

 Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a

lower frequency, known as the intermediate frequency (IF),
at which a single set of amplifiers is used to provide a fixed
level of sensitivity and selectivity.

 Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF amplifiers.

 The key circuit is the mixer, which acts like a simple amplitude
modulator to produce sum and difference frequencies.

 The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 26

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8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers (cont’d)

Figure 8-8: Block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 27

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8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers (cont’d)

RF Amplifier

 The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to

the RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier
(LNA).

 RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and selectivity and

are sometimes called preselectors.

 Tuned circuits help select the frequency range in which the

signal resides.

 RF amplifiers minimize oscillator radiation.

 Bipolar and FETs can be used as RF amplifiers.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 28

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8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers (cont’d)

Mixers and Local Oscillators

 The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of the

mixer.
 The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator or
frequency synthesizer.
 The mixer output is the input signal, the local oscillator signal,
and the sum and difference frequencies of these signals.
 A tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference
frequency, or intermediate frequency (IF).
 The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency can be
adjusted over a relatively wide range.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 29

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8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers (cont’d)

IF Amplifiers

 The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same

modulation that appeared on the input RF signal.

 The signal is amplified by one or more IF amplifier stages,

and most of the gain is obtained in these stages.

 Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity.

 Since the intermediate frequency is usually lower than the

input frequency, IF amplifiers are easier to design and good
selectivity is easier to obtain.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 30

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8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers (cont’d)

Demodulators

 The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the

demodulator, which recovers the original modulating
information.

 The demodulator may be a diode detector (for AM), a

quadrature detector (for FM), or a product detector (for
SSB).

 The output of the demodulator is then usually fed to an

audio amplifier.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 31

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8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers (cont’d)

Automatic Gain Control

 The output of a demodulator is usually the original

modulating signal, the amplitude of which is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the received signal.

 The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectified and

filtered into a dc voltage by a circuit known as the
automatic gain control (AGC) circuit.

 This dc voltage is fed back to the IF amplifiers, and

sometimes the RF amplifier, to control receiver gain.

 AGC circuits help maintain a constant output level over a

wide range of RF input signal levels.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 32

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8-2: Superheterodyne Receivers (cont’d)

Automatic Gain Control

 The amplitude of the RF signal at the antenna of a receiver

can range from a fraction of a microvolt to thousands of
microvolts; this wide signal range is known as the dynamic
range.

 Typically, receivers are designed with very high gain so that

weak signals can be reliably received.

 However, applying a very high-amplitude signal to a receiver

causes the circuits to be overdriven, producing distortion and
reducing intelligibility.

 With AGC, the overall gain of the receiver is automatically

adjusted depending on the input signal level.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 33

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8-3: Frequency Conversion

 Frequency conversion is the process of translating a

modulated signal to a higher or lower frequency while retaining
all the originally transmitted information.

 In radio receivers, high-frequency signals are converted to a

lower, intermediate frequency. This is called down
conversion.

 In satellite communications, the original signal is generated at

a lower frequency and then converted to a higher frequency.
This is called up conversion.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 34

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Mixing Principles

 Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation

carried out by a mixer circuit or converter.

 The function performed by the mixer is called

heterodyning.

 Mixers accept two inputs: The signal to be translated to

another frequency is applied to one input, and the sine
wave from a local oscillator is applied to the other input.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 35

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Mixing Principles

 Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer essentially performs

a mathematical multiplication of its two input signals.

 The oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be translated

is the modulating signal.

 The output contains not only the carrier signal but also
sidebands formed when the local oscillator and input signal
are mixed.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 36

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Figure 8-9: Concept of a mixer.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 37

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Mixer and Converter Circuits: Diode Mixer

 The primary characteristic of mixer circuits is nonlinearity.

 Any device or circuit whose output does not vary linearly

with the input can be used as a mixer.

 One of the most widely used types of mixer is the simple

diode modulator.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 38

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Mixer and Converter Circuits: Diode Mixer

 The input signal is applied to the primary winding of the

transformer.

 The signal is coupled to the secondary winding and applied

to the diode mixer, and the local oscillator signal is coupled
to the diode by way of a capacitor.

 The input and local oscillator signals are linearly added and
applied to the diode, which produces the sum and
difference frequencies.

 The output signals are developed across the tuned circuit

which selects the difference frequency.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 39

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Mixer and Converter Circuits: Diode Mixer

Figure 8-10: A simple diode mixer.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 40

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Mixer and Converter Circuits: Diode Mixer

 Singly balanced mixer:

 A popular mixer circuit using two diodes.

 Doubly balanced mixer:

 This version of the diode balanced modulator is probably
the single best mixer available, especially for VHF, UHF,
and microwave frequencies.

 FET Mixers:
 FETs make good mixers because they provide gain, have
low noise, and offer a nearly perfect square-low response.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 41

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

 Singly balanced mixer:

Figure 8-11 A singly balanced diode mixer.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 42

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

 Doubly balanced mixer:

Figure 8-12
A doubly balanced mixer very popular at high frequencies.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 43

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

 FET Mixers:

Figure 8-13
A JFET mixer.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 44

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 8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

 MOSFET Mixers:

Figure 8-14
A dual-gate MOSFET mixer.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 45

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Mixer and Converter Circuits: IC Mixer

 The NE602, a typical IC mixer, is also known as a Gilbert

transconductance cell or Gilbert cell.

 It consists of a double balanced mixer circuit made up of

two cross-connected differential amplifiers.

Mixer and Converter Circuits: Image Reject Mixer

 An image reject mixer is a special type of mixer used in

designs in which images cannot be tolerated.

 It uses Gilbert cell mixers in a configuration like that used

in a phasing-type SSB generator.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 46

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Figure 9-15: NE602 IC mixer.

(a)Block diagram and pinout.

(b)(b) Simplified schematic.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 47

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Figure 8-16 NE602 mixer used for frequency translation.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 48

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers

 The local oscillator signal for the mixer comes from either a
conventional LC tuned oscillator or a frequency synthesizer.

 The simpler continuously tuned receivers use an LC

oscillator.

 Channelized receivers use frequency synthesizers.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 49

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers : LC Oscillator

 A local oscillator is sometimes referred to as a variable-

frequency oscillator, or VFO.

 An amplifier (e.g. FET) is connected as a Colpitts oscillator.

 Feedback is developed by a voltage divider made up of

capacitors.

 The frequency is set by a parallel tuned circuit.

 The output is taken across an RFC and it is buffered by a

direct-coupled emitter follower.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 50

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Figure 8 -17: A VFO for receiver local oscillator service.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 51

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers :

Frequency Synthesizers

 Most new receiver designs incorporate frequency

synthesizers for the local oscillator, which provides some
important benefits over simple VFO designs.

 The synthesizer is usually of the phase-locked loop (PLL)

design and the output is locked to a crystal oscillator reference
which provides high stability.

 Tuning is accomplished by changing the frequency division

factor in the PLL, resulting in incremental rather than
continuous frequency changes.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 52

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8-3: Frequency Conversion (cont’d)

Figure 9-18: A frequency synthesizer used as a receiver local oscillator.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 53

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images

 The primary objective in the design of an IF stage is to obtain

good selectivity.

 Narrow-band selectivity is best obtained at lower frequencies.

 At low frequencies, circuits are more stable with high gain.

 At low frequencies, image interference is possible. An image is

an RF signal two times the IF above or below the incoming
frequency.

 At higher frequencies, circuit layouts must take into account

stray inductances and capacitances.

 At higher frequencies, there is a need for shielding.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 54

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Figure 8-19: Relationship of the signal and image frequencies.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 55

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Figure 8-20: Signal, local oscillator, and image frequencies in a superheterodyne.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 56

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Solving the Image Problem

 To reduce image interference, high-Q tuned circuits should

be used ahead of the mixer or RF amplifier.

 The IF is made as high as possible for effective elimination

of the image problem, yet low enough to prevent design
problems.

 In most receivers the IF varies in proportion to the

frequencies that must be covered.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 57

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Figure 8-21:
A low IF compared to the signal frequency with low-Q tuned circuits causes images
to pass and interfere.

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Dual-Conversion Receivers

 Another way to obtain selectivity while eliminating the

image problem is to use a dual-conversion
superheterodyne receiver.

 A typical receiver uses two mixers and local oscillators, so

it has two IFs.

 The first mixer converts the incoming signal to a high

intermediate frequency to eliminate the images.

 The second mixer converts that IF down to a much lower

frequency, where good selectivity is easier to obtain.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 59

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Figure 8-22: A dual-conversion superheterodyne.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 60

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

 Example 8-1
A superheterodyne receiver must cover the range from 220
to 224 MHz. The first IF is 10.7 MHz; the second is 1.5
MHz. Find (a) the local oscillator tuning range, (b) the
frequency of the second local oscillator, and (c) the first IF
image frequency range. (Assume a local oscillator frequency
higher than the input by the IF.)

SOLUTION:

(a) LO Tuning Range:

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 61

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

 Example 8-1
A superheterodyne receiver must cover the range from 220
to 224 MHz. The first IF is 10.7 MHz; the second is 1.5
MHz. Find (a) the local oscillator tuning range, (b) the
frequency of the second local oscillator, and (c) the first IF
image frequency range. (Assume a local oscillator frequency
higher than the input by the IF.)

SOLUTION:

(b) 2nd LO Frequency: (c) 1st IF Image Range:

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Direct Conversion Receivers

 A special version of the superheterodyne is known as the

direct conversion (DC) or zero IF (ZIF) receiver.
 DC receivers convert the incoming signal directly to
baseband without converting to an IF.
 They perform demodulation as part of the translation.
 The low-noise amplifier (LNA) boosts the signal before the
mixer.
 The local oscillator (LO) frequency is set to the frequency of
the incoming signal.
 Baseband output is passed via a low-pass filter (LPF).

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 63

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Figure 9-23: A direct-conversion (zero-IF) receiver.

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Direct Conversion Receivers

 Advantages:

 No separate IF filter is needed.

 No separate detector circuit is needed.

 In transceivers that use half duplex and in which the

transmitter and receiver are on the same frequency,
only one PLL frequency synthesizer voltage-controlled
oscillator is needed.

 There is no image problem.

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Direct Conversion Receivers

 Disadvantages:

 In designs with no RF amplifier (LNA), the LO signal can

leak through the mixer to the antenna and radiate.

 An undesired dc offset can develop in the output.

 The ZIF receiver can be used only with CW, AM, SSB, or
DSB. It cannot recognize phase or frequency variations.

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Direct Conversion Receivers

 Disadvantages:

 In designs with no RF amplifier (LNA), the LO signal can

leak through the mixer to the antenna and radiate.

 An undesired dc offset can develop in the output.

 The ZIF receiver can be used only with CW, AM, SSB, or
DSB. It cannot recognize phase or frequency variations.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 67

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Figure 9-24:
A direct conversion receiver for FM, FSK, PSK, and digital modulation.

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Direct Conversion Receivers

 To demodulate FM and PM modulations in a zero-IF receiver,

two mixers and filters are needed.

 There must be a 90° phase shift between the LO signals to

produce I and Q signals for the DSP demodulation.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 69

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Software-Defined Radio

 A software-defined radio (SDR) is a receiver in which

most of the functions are performed by a digital signal
processor (DSP).

 The benefits of SDRs are improved performance and

flexibility.

 The receiver characteristics (type of modulation, selectivity,

etc.) can be easily changed by running a different program.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 70

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8-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images (cont’d)

Software-Defined Radio

Figure 9-24
A direct conversion receiver for FM, FSK, PSK. and digital modulation.
Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 71
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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

 Noise is an electronic signal that gets added to a radio or

information signal as it is transmitted from one place to
another.

 It is not the same as interference from other information

signals.

 Noise is the static you hear in the speaker when you tune any
AM or FM receiver to any position between stations. It is also
the “snow” or “confetti” that is visible on a TV screen.

 The noise level in a system is proportional to temperature and

bandwidth, the amount of current flowing in a component, the
gain of the circuit, and the resistance of the circuit.

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

 The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio indicates the relative

strengths of the signal and the noise in a communication
system.

 The stronger the signal and the weaker the noise, the
higher the S/N ratio.

 The S/N ratio is a power ratio.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 73

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

 Signals can be expressed in terms of voltage or power.

 The S/N ratio is computed by using either voltage or power

values

where:
V s = signal voltage Ps= signal power
Vn = noise voltage Pn= noise power

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Example

Vs = 1.2V, Vn = 0.3V, Ps = 5W, Pn = 125nW. Determine S/N

in dB.

If the S/N is less than 1, the dB value will be negative

and the noise will be stronger than the signal.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 75

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

External Noise
 External noise comes from sources over which we have little or
no control, such as:

 Industrial sources
 motors, generators, manufactured equipment

 Atmospheric sources
 The naturally occurring electrical disturbances in the
earth’s atmosphere; atmospheric noise is also called
static.

 Space
 The sun radiates a wide range of signals in a broad noise
spectrum.

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Internal Noise

 Electronic components in a receiver such as resistors,

diodes, and transistors are major sources of internal
noise. Types of internal noise include:

 Thermal noise
 Semiconductor noise
 Intermodulation distortion

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Internal Noise: Thermal Noise

 The amount of open-circuit noise voltage appearing across a

resistor or the input impedance to a receiver can be
calculated according to Jonson's formula:

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 78

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Internal Noise: Thermal Noise

 TEMPERATURE SCALES AND CONVERSIONS

Thermal noise can also be

computed as a power level.
Johnson's formula is then

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 79

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Internal Noise: Thermal Noise

 Example 8-4

What is the average noise power of a device operating at a

temperature of 90°F with a bandwidth of 30 kHz?

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 80

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Internal Noise: Thermal Noise

 Example 8-2

What is the open-circuit noise voltage across a 100-k

resistor over the frequency range of direct current to 20 kHz
at room temperature (25°C)?

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 81

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Internal Noise: Thermal Noise

 Example 8-4

The bandwidth of a receiver with a 75- input resistance is

6 MHz. The temperature is 29°C. What is the input thermal
noise voltage?

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 82

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Expressing Noise Levels

 The noise quality of a receiver can be expressed in the
following terms:

 The noise factor (Noise Ratio, NR) is the ratio of the S/N
power at the input to the S/N power at the output.
 When the noise factor is expressed in decibels, it is called
the noise figure (NF).
 Most of the noise produced in a device is thermal, which is
directly proportional to temperature. Therefore, the term
noise temperature (TN) is used.
 SINAD is the composite signal plus noise and distortion
divided by noise and distortion contributed by the receiver.

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Expressing Noise Levels

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 84

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)
Expressing Noise Levels
 Example 8-6

A receiver with a 75- input resistance operates at a temperature of 31oC. The received signal is at 89 MHz with a bandwidth of 6 MHz. The received signal voltage of 8.3 V is applied to an amplifier with a noise figure of 2.8 dB. Find (a) the input noise power. (b) the input signal power. (c) S/N, in decibels,
(d) the noise factor and S/N of the amplifier. and (e) the noise temperature of the amplifier.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 85

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)
Expressing Noise Levels
 Example 8-6 (Solution)

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 86

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)
Expressing Noise Levels
 Example 8-6 (Solution)

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 87

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Noise in Cascaded Stages

 Noise has its greatest effect at the input to a receiver

because that is the point at which the signal level is lowest.

 The noise performance of a receiver is determined in the

first stage of the receiver, usually an RF amplifier or mixer.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 88

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Noise in Cascaded Stages

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 89

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8-5: NOISE (cont’d)

Noise in Cascaded Stages

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 90

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits

 Typical receiver circuits include:

 RF amplifiers
 IF amplifiers
 AGC
 AFC
 Special circuits

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 91

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

RF Input Amplifier

 The RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier (LNA),

processes the very weak input signals, increasing their
amplitude prior to mixing.

 Low-noise components are used to ensure a sufficiently

high S/N ratio.

 Selectivity should be such that it effectively eliminates

images.

 The RF amplifier is typically a class A circuit that can be

configured with bipolar or field-effect transistors.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 92

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Figure 9-30: A typical RF amplifier used in receiver front ends.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 93
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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

IF Amplifier

 Most of the gain and selectivity in a superheterodyne receiver

are obtained in the IF amplifier.

 If amplifiers are tuned class A circuits capable of providing

gain in the 10- to 30-dB range.

 Usually two or more IF amplifiers are used to provide

adequate receiver gain.

 Ferrite-core transformers are used for coupling between

stages.

 Selectivity is provided by tuned circuits.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 94

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

IF Amplifier

Figure 8-33:
A two-stage IF amplifier using double-tuned transformer coupling for selectivity.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 95

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Traditional IF Amplifier Circuits: Coupled Circuit Selectivity

 Changing the amount of coupling between the primary and

secondary windings allows the desired amount of bandwidth
to be obtained. At some particular degree of coupling, known
as critical coupling, the output reaches a peak value.

 In FM receivers, one or more of the IF amplifier stages is

used as a limiter, to remove any amplitude variations on the
FM signal before the signal is applied to the demodulator.

 Most modern receivers do not use LC tuned filters but instead

use crystal, ceramic, mechanical, SAW or DSP filters.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 96

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Automatic Gain Control Circuits

 Receiver gain is typically far greater than required for

adequate reception. Excessive gain usually causes the
received signal to be distorted and the transmitted
information to be less intelligible.

 Manual gain control can be achieved by using a

potentiometer in RF and IF stages.

 Receivers include volume controls in audio circuits.

 AGC circuits are more effective in handling large signals

and give the receiver a very wide dynamic range.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 97

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Automatic Gain Control Circuits:

Controlling Circuit Gain

 The gain of a bipolar transistor amplifier is proportional to the

amount of collector current flowing.

 Two methods of applying AGC are as follows:

1. The gain can be decreased by decreasing the collector
current. This is called reverse AGC.
2. The gain can be reduced by increasing the collector
current. A stronger signal increases AGC voltage and base
current and, in turn, increases collector current, reducing
the gain. This method of gain control is known as forward
AGC.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 98

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Automatic Gain Control Circuits:

Controlling Circuit Gain

 Receiver gain is typically far greater than required for

adequate reception. Excessive gain usually causes the
received signal to be distorted and the transmitted
information to be less intelligible.
 Manual gain control can be achieved by using a
potentiometer in RF and IF stages.
 Receivers include volume controls in audio circuits.
 AGC circuits are more effective in handling large signals and
give the receiver a very wide dynamic range.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 99

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Automatic Gain Control Circuits:

Figure 8-37:
An IF differential amplifier with AGC.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 100

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Squelch Circuit

 A squelch circuit, or muting circuit, is found in most

communications receivers.

 The squelch is used to keep the receiver audio turned off until
an RF signal appears at the receiver input.

 In AM systems such as CB radios, the noise level is high and can

be very annoying.

 Squelch circuits provide a means of keeping the audio amplifier

turned off during the time that noise is received in the
background and enabling it when an RF signal appears at the
input.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 101

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits: Squelch Circuit
(cont’d)

Figure 8- 41 A noise-derived squelch circuit.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 102

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

SSB and Continuous-Wave Reception

 Communication receivers designed for receiving SSB or

continuous-wave signals have a built-in oscillator that
permits recovery of the transmitted information.

 A circuit called the beat frequency oscillator (BFO) is

usually designed to operate near the IF.

 The BFO signal is applied to the demodulator along with the

IF signal containing the modulation.

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Figure 8-42: The use of a BFO.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 104

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Integrated Circuits (ICs) in Receivers

 In new designs, virtually all receiver circuits are ICs.

 A complete receiver usually consists of three or four ICs,

plus coils, transformers, capacitors, and filters.

 Most modern receivers are contained on a single IC.

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8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)

Integrated Circuits (ICs) in Receivers

 IC receivers are typically broken down into three major

sections:

1. The tuner, with RF amplifier, mixer, and local oscillator

2. The IF section, with amplifiers, demodulator, and AGC
and muting circuits
3. The audio power amplifier.

 The second and third sections are entirely implemented with

ICs. The tuner may or may not be, for often the LNA is
separate.

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 8-6: Typical Receiver Circuits (cont’d)
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in Receivers

Figure 9-43 The 3089 IC, an FM receiver IF system.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 107

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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers

VHF Aircraft Communication Circuit

 A typical VHF receiver is designed to receive two-way

aircraft communication between planes and airport
controllers.

 They have a typical frequency range of 118 to 135 MHz.

 Amplitude modulation is typical with these receivers.

 VHF receivers are designed to use a combination of discrete

components and ICs.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 108

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 8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

Figure 8-44
The aviation receiver—a
superheterodyne unit built around
four ICs—is designed to receive
AM signals in the 118- to 135-MHz
frequency range. (Popular
Electronics, January 1991,
Gernsback Publications, Inc.)

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 109

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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

Single-IC FM Receiver

 The Motorola MC3363 FM receiver IC chip contains all

receiver circuits except for the audio power amplifier (a
separate chip).
 It is designed to operate at frequencies up to about 200 MHz
 It is widely used in cordless telephones, paging receivers,
and other portable applications.
 This dual-conversion receiver contains two mixers, two local
oscillators, a limiter, a quadrature detector, and squelch
circuits.
 The first local oscillator has a built-in varactor that allows it
to be controlled by an external frequency synthesizer.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 110

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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

Figure 9-45:
The Motorola MC3363 dual-
conversion receiver IC.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 111

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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

Transceiver

 Most two-way radio communication equipment is packaged

so that both transmitter and receiver are in a unit known
as a transceiver.

 Transceivers range from large, high-power desktop units to

small, pocket-sized, handheld units.

 Transceivers have a common housing and power supply.

 Transceivers can share circuits, thereby achieve cost

savings, and in some cases are smaller in size.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 112

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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

Figure 9-47: An SSB transceiver showing circuit sharing.

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 113
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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

 Problems
13. Calculate what L network components will match a 4- internal
resistance in series with an internal inductance of 9 nH to a 72- load
impedance in parallel with a stray capacitance of 24 pF at a frequency of
46 MHz.

14. Design an LCC T network that will match 5- internal resistance to a 52-
 load at 54 MHz. Assume a Q of 12.

15. A transformer has 6 turns on the primary and 18 turns on the secondary.
If the generator (source) impedance is 50 what should the load
impedance be?

16. A transformer must match a 2500- generator to a 50-load. What

must the turns ratio be?

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 114

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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

 Problems
5. A filter has a 6-dB bandwidth of 3500 Hz and a 60-dB
bandwidth of 8400 Ht.. What is the shape factor?

6. A superhet has an input signal of 14.5 MHz. The local

oscillatoris tuned to 19 MHz. What is the IF?

7. A desired signal at 29 MHz is mixed with a local oscillator of

37.5 MHz. What is the image frequency?

8. A dual-conversion superhet has an input frequency of 62 MHz

and local oscillator of 71 and 8.6 M Hz. What are the two IFs?

9. What are the outputs of a mixer with inputs of 162 and 189
MHz.

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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

 Problems

n What is the most likely IF for a mixer with inputs of 162 and 189
MHz?

n A frequency synthesizer like the one in Fig. 9-18 has a reference

frequency of 100 kHz. The crystal oscillator and the multiplier
supply a signal of 240 MHz to the mixer. The frequency divider
is set to 1500. What is the VCO output frequency?

n A frequency synthesizer has a phase detector input reference of

12.5 kHz. The divider ratio is 295. What are the output
frequency and the frequency change increment?

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 116

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8-7: Receivers and Tranceivers (cont’d)

 Problems
13. The signal input power to a receiver is 6.2 nW. The noise
power is 1.8 nW. What is the S/N ratio? What is the S/N
ratio in decibels?

14. What is the noise voltage produced across a 50- input

resistance at a temperature of 25o C with a bandwidth of
2.5 MHz?

15. At what frequencies is noise temperature used to express

the noise in a system?

16. The noise ratio of an amplifier is 1.8. What is the noise

Temperature in kelvins?

Chapter 8 – Communication Receivers 117

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