BUAD801 Research Methodology

Qualitative Data Analysis

 Chapter Overview
This chapter discusses:
– Qualitative data analysis
– Qualitative data analysis processes
– Quality in qualitative data
– CAQDAS

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 Qualitative Data Analysis
• Like quantitative data, qualitative data has to be
analysed in order to bring about order and understanding
– The analysis provide evidence to convince the reader of the
existence of certain kind of knowledge or a certain phenomenon
– The analysis should shed light on your research questions
– The focus is to transforms data into findings

• It is a non-linear, iterative and progressive process,

starting from during data collection to after data
collection
– The process involves several rounds of questioning, reflection,
theorizing, verifying after each data collection exercise
– It requires a “fit” between research problem, theory, and data
– The process requires creativity, discipline and a systematic
approach
 Qualitative Data Analysis

• There are mainly four interconnected processes of

analysing qualitative data
– Documentation of the data and data collection processes
– Conceptualization, coding and categorization of the data
– Identification of patterns and connections: examining
relationships and displaying data
– Theory-driven interpretation
 Documentation

• Writing up field notes

– Transcribing notes immediately after spending time in the
field
– It is important to keeping track of the rapidly growing
volume of data
– Provide a way of developing and outlining the analytic
process
– Encourages on-going conceptualization and strategizing
about the data
 Documentation
• Get to know your data
– Consider the quality of the data
• Have you collected superficial data or rich data?
• Is there sufficient contextual detail?
• Is there sufficient variation in the data?
– Develop a good understanding of your data by reading and re-
reading your data for content.
• Three ways of reading the data
– Literally: Focus on literal content and form
– Reflexively: Focusing on how your orientation shapes your
interpretation and focus
– Interpretively: Constructing your own interpretation of what
the data means
Conceptualization,
• Categorizing (codingCoding and
or indexing) dataCategorization
is the crux of
qualitative data analysis
– It sets the stage for describing, explaining, and interpreting the
data from which conclusions may be drawn.
• It involves:
– De-contextualization: segmenting data into portions.
• Identifying themes in the data (behaviors, attitudes, feelings
values/opinion, motives, processes, systems, and context) that
help in understanding the situation under investigation
• Assigning codes to the themes identified for the purpose of
classification or identification
– Re-contextualization: pooling the above segments into a
meaningful group.
• Organizing themes into coherent categories and subcategories
using pre-set and/or emergent categories
Conceptualization, Coding and Categorization

• Using pre-set categories

– Involves identifying themes before searching the data for text
that match the themes
– Starting with concepts that you really want to know about
• Review your research problem/questions for concepts implied

– The categories are derived from theory and the literature

• Theoretical concepts provide good basis for making sense of
qualitative data
• Literature in the topic area may provide concepts that have been
used in prior research
– The themes/concepts provide direction for what to look
for in the data
Conceptualization, Coding and Categorization
Example of pre-set categories: How are corporate social responsibility
practices related to brand image?
Brand Image
• Brand image reflects how customers think about a brand
• Major functions of a product/service may not be significantly different
• Non-functional symbolic associations with a brand may be important consideration
• The non-functional symbolic aspects create an image for a brand

Corporate Social Responsibility (CRS)

• CRS is about how companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their
business operations and interactions with their stakeholders
• Involves business self-regulation with the aim of being socially accountable
• Two areas of responsibility are legal responsibility and ethical responsibility
• Do CSR contribute to the symbolic image of a brand?
Conceptualization, Coding and Categorization
Example of pre-set categories : How are corporate social responsibility
practices related to brand image?
Institutional theory
• To survive and grow, organizations need to strive for legitimacy-embedded efficiency
• Organizations need to understand and adapt to their institutional environment
• There are regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive institutions in the environment
that puts legitimacy pressure on organizations
• Organizations engage in adaptive processes to conform with institutional expectations
• Those who conform gain institutional capital

Theorizing using Institutional theory

• CRS is an adaptive management practice
• In fulfilling legal responsibilities of CSR, organizations conform to the regulative
aspects of the institutional environment
• In fulfilling ethical responsibility through CSR, organizations conform to the cultural-
cognitive aspects of the institutional environment
• The research focus is to understand the processes and mechanisms through which
CSR translate into symbolic image for a brand
Conceptualization, Coding and Categorization
• Using emergent (inductive) categories
– Themes or categories that recur in the data (ideas, concepts,
etc.)
• The themes are defined after preliminary data analysis

• A combination of pre-set and emergent categories

– Starting with pre-set categories and adding (or revising with)
emergent ones
• Continue to build categories until no new themes
emerge
• Maintain a codebook
– It will contain a list of codes and their definitions in order to
assist in assigning codes to data.
Conceptualization, Coding and Categorization

• Example of emergent codes (sample by Jess C)

 Identifying Patterns and Connections
• Identify patterns and connections within and between
categories
– Summarise the information pertaining to one category
• Capture the similarities or difference in peoples responses within
the category
– Create larger super categories that combine several categories by
exploring relationships between categories and how they relate to
your research questions/problem
• Create sequence through time
• Explore relative importance of each category
– Integrate all categories into a story line
– Validate the relationship against data
– Refinement
Identifying Patterns and Connections
• Example of patterns: Project costs overruns
Qualitative Data Analysis Process: Theory Driven
interpretation
• Bringing it all together
– Use your themes and connections to explain your findings
• Attach meaning and significance to your analysis
• Stand back and think about what you have learnt
• Show how the evidence support your interpretation
• Avoid over generalising your results

– Develop an outline for presenting your results

• Use quotes of descriptive examples to illustrate your points and bring
the data to live
– Choose quotes carefully

– Address limitation and alternatives

• Present the problems and limitations you faced in the field
• Indicate how you addressed possible alternative explanations
 Quality in Qualitative Data and Analysis
• Criteria for judging the quality of qualitative research include:
– Convincingness
• Authenticity
– “being there” quality of the field research
– written assurance of the researcher’s presence in and
understanding of the field
• Plausibility
– Whether the rendition of the field makes sense or is credible given
what the reader knows about their world
– Whether the field research is coherent when assessed in terms of its
structure and its disciplinary context
• Criticality
– How the field speaks to our human and organisational conditions of
existence in ways we find useful and desirable
 Quality in Qualitative Data and Analysis
• Other criteria include
– Triangulation
• Methods: combining interviews, observation and document review
• Analysts: using multiple analysts, independent analysis and
comparing their findings
• Theories: understanding how different assumptions affect findings or
illuminate inconsistencies
– Respondent validation
– Documentation
• Traceability from data sources to collection methods to analysis
• Bookkeeping – software can help
• The chain of evidence and the logic that leads to any conclusion
must be clear to any reasonable observer
Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)

• CAQDAS involves the use of special computer software

to assist qualitative analysis through creating, applying,
and refining categories; tracing linkages between
concepts; and making comparisons between cases and
events.
• There are many types of a CAQDAS, for different
reasons.
• NVIVO is one of the packages available and it is
superior in many ways to other software available (until
now!).