Dr.S.

Sreedhar Reddy
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
INTRODUCTION: WATER SOURCES

While all communities are different, one element they all have in common is the need for
water for industries, commercial enterprises, and residents to use.

In fact, a regular supply of potable water is the most important factor affecting whether or
not any living creature chooses an area to live.

However, stable and plentiful fresh water sources are not always readily available where
they could be put to most practical use.

We recognize that water is not uniformly distributed. The heaviest populations of any life
forms, including humans, are found in regions of the world where potable water is
present, because lands barren of water simply won't support large populations.
The hydrologic cycle constantly renews our freshwater supplies, but population pressure
is constantly increasing.

As our population grows, and we move into lands without ready freshwater supplies, we
place ecological strain upon those areas, and on their ability to support life.

Communities must have a constant adequate water supply to survive. Population that
chose to build in areas without an adequate local water supply are at risk when
emergencies occur.

While attention to water source remediation, pollution control, water reclamation and
reuse can help to ease the strain increasing populations place on a water supply.
 Assignment-01(01.02.2010)
Last date for submission: 13.02.2010

1. Water Source remediation

2. Water Pollution control
3. Water reclamation and Reuse
 Raw Water Source
The various sources of water can be classified into two categories:
1. Surface sources
1. Ponds and lakes
2. Streams and rivers
3. Storage reservoirs , and
4. Oceans

Sub-surface sources or underground sources

1. Springs
2. Infiltration wells , and
3. Wells and Tube-wells
Spring
•A spring is any natural occurrence where water flows on to the surface of the earth

from below the surface, and is thus where the aquifer surface meets the ground surface.

•A spring may be the result of karst topography where surface water has infiltrated the

Earth's surface (recharge area), becoming part of the area groundwater.

•The groundwater then travels though a network of cracks and fissures - openings

ranging from intergranular spaces to large caves. The water eventually emerges from

below the surface, in the form of a spring.

Karst topography is a landscape
shaped by the dissolution of a layer or
layers of soluble bedrock, usually
carbonate rock such as limestone or
dolomite.
Infiltration Wells
• Digging or drilling a well near the banks of a stream or river is the cheapest and
simplest method of development.
•The well should be close enough to the river channel to collect both water flowing
underground and water seeping in through the channel, as shown in Figure .
•Generally, this will provide a very good supply of water throughout the year. Even if the
river dries up during times of little rain, water will be available from the ground.
•The water will also be filtered naturally. Water from the stream passes through the sand
and silt in the river bank and impurities are removed.
•The degree of purification will depend on the extent of contamination of the stream and
on the soil type.
•In many cases, the purification process will be sufficient to make treatment
unnecessary.
•A hand pump, windmill or power pump can be installed to extract the water and pump it
through the system.
DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS

The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 required the USEPA to establish mandatory

drinking water standards for all public water systems serving 25 or more people, or

having 15 or more connections.

Under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) , the EPA established maximum

contaminant levels for drinking water delivered through public water distribution systems.

If water analysis indicates a water system is exceeding a maximum contamination level

(MCL) for a contaminant, the system must either stop providing the water to the public or

treat the water to reduce the contaminant concentration to below the MCL.
Primary drinking-water standards

Most pollutants of concern in drinking water are typically found only at low levels. Thus,

the primary concern is potential chronic health effects that might result over years of

drinking the water.

Potential chronic effects are the reason why metals such as lead and cadmium, organic

pollutants such as solvents, and pesticides are regulated.

The EPA sets primary standards for many of the pollutants.

Setting standards involves two steps. (1) It determines a maximum contaminant level

goal (MCLG), a level not expected to cause adverse health effects even over a lifetime

of exposure. (2) Because achieving the MCLG is not always possible, the EPA also sets

an achievable maximum contaminant level (MCL).

Adults who drink lead polluted water over many years could
develop kidney problems or high blood pressure.

Some people who drink water containing cadmium well in

excess of the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for many
years could experience kidney damage.
The MCL is set as close to the MCLG as possible. The MCL is an enforceable standard.
MCLs have been set for nearly 100 pollutants .

Primary drinking water standards

Secondary drinking-water standards

Secondary standards are designed to protect ‘‘public welfare”. They are guidelines for

substances that affect the water’s aesthetic qualities, such as taste, odor, and color, but

that do not pose a health risk. They are unenforceable unless individual states treat

them as enforceable.
Secondary drinking water standards
Water Quality Characteristics
Water quality parameters provide a yardstick by which to measure water's physical,
chemical, and biological characteristics.

These parameters include a range of characteristics that make water appealing and
useful to consumers, and that ensure the water presents no harm or disruption to the
environment or to humans within a wide range of possible water uses.

Physical Characteristics
Physical parameters define those characteristics of water that respond to the senses of
sight, touch, taste or smell. Parameters that fall in to this category are
•Turbidity
•Taste & Odor
•Color
•Temperature
Figure 1. Physical characteristics of water
Chemical Characteristics
Water has been called the universal solvent, and chemical parameters are related to the
solvent capabilities of water. Chemical parameters of concern in water quality
management are
•pH
•Acidity
•Alkalinity
•Hardness
•Chlorides
•Sulphates
•Iron
•Solids
•Nitrates
Bacteriological Characteristics
•Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates the degree of
pollution.
•Water polluted by sewage contain one or more species of disease producing
pathogenic bacteria.
•Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and many non pathogenic bacteria
such as E.Coli, a member of coliform group, also live in the intestinal tract of human
beings.
•Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance to adverse condition
than any other group.
•So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the harmful species will be very
less.
•So, coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of water with sewage and
presence of pathogens.
Figure 2. Biological water quality characteristics
Figure 3. Bacterial shapes

Figure 4. Virus shapes

Figure 5. Protozoa
TABLE Waterborne Disease-Causing Organisms
 Turbidity
•If a large amount of suspended solids are present in water, it will appear turbid in
appearance.

•The turbidity depends upon fineness and concentration of particles present in water.

•Originally turbidity was determined by measuring the depth of column of liquid required
to cause the image of a candle flame at the bottom to diffuse into a uniform glow. This
was measured by Jackson candle turbidity meter.

•The depth of sample in the tube was read against the part per million (ppm) silica scale
with one ppm of suspended silica called one Jackson Turbidity unit (JTU).

•These days turbidity is measured by applying Nephelometry, a technique to measure

level of light scattered by the particles at right angles to the incident light beam. The
scattered light level is proportional to the particle concentration in the sample.

•The unit of expression is Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU). The IS values for drinking
water is 10 to 25 NTU.
 Color
•Dissolved organic matter from decaying vegetation or some inorganic materials may

impart color to the water.

•It can be measured by comparing the color of water sample with other standard glass

tubes containing solutions of different standard color intensities.

•The standard unit of color is that which is produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt

dissolved in one liter of distilled water.

•The IS value for treated water is 5 to 25 cobalt units.
 Taste and Odor
•Odor depends on the contact of a stimulating substance with the appropriate human

receptor cell.
•Most organic and some inorganic chemicals, originating from municipal or industrial

wastes, contribute taste and odor to the water.

•Taste and odor can be expressed in terms of odor intensity or threshold values.
 Temperature

•The increase in temperature decreases palatability, because at elevated temperatures

carbon dioxide and some other volatile gases are expelled.
•The ideal temperature of water for drinking purposes is 5 to 12 °C - above 25 °C, water
is not recommended for drinking.
pH
•pH value denotes the acidic or
alkaline condition of water.
•It is expressed on a scale ranging
from 0 to 14, which is the common
logarithm of the reciprocal of the
hydrogen ion concentration.
•The recommended pH range for
treated drinking waters is 6.5 to 8.5.
Acidity
•The acidity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize bases.

•Acidity of water may be caused by the presence of uncombined carbon dioxide, mineral

acids and salts of strong acids and weak bases.

•It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate.

•Acidity is nothing but representation of carbon dioxide or carbonic acids. Carbon dioxide

causes corrosion in public water supply systems.

Alkalinity
•The alkalinity of water is a measure of its capacity to neutralize acids.

•It is expressed as mg/L in terms of calcium carbonate.

•The various forms of alkalinity are

(a) hydroxide alkalinity

(b) carbonate alkalinity

(c) hydroxide plus carbonate alkalinity

(d) carbonate plus bicarbonate alkalinity, and

(e) bicarbonate alkalinity, which is useful mainly in water softening and boiler feed water

processes.
•Alkalinity is an important parameter in evaluating the optimum coagulant dosage.
Hardness
•If water consumes excessive soap to produce lather, it is said to be hard.
•Hardness is caused by divalent metallic cations.
•The principal hardness causing cations are calcium, magnesium, strontium, ferrous and
manganese ions.
•The major anions associated with these cations are Sulphates, carbonates,
bicarbonates, chlorides and nitrates.

•Hardness are of two types, temporary or carbonate hardness and permanent or non
carbonate hardness.
•Temporary hardness is one in which bicarbonate and carbonate ion can be precipitated
by prolonged boiling.
•Non-carbonate ions cannot be precipitated or removed by boiling, hence the term
permanent hardness.
•IS value for drinking water is 300 mg/L as CaCO3.
Chlorides
•Chloride ion may be present in combination with one or more of the cations of calcium,
magnesium, iron and sodium.
•Chlorides of these minerals are present in water because of their high solubility in
water.
•Each human being consumes about six to eight grams of sodium chloride per day, a
part of which is discharged through urine and night soil.
•Thus, excessive presence of chloride in water indicates sewage pollution.
•IS value for drinking water is 250 to 1000 mg/L.
Sulphates
•Sulphates occur in water due to leaching from sulphate mineral and oxidation of

sulphides.
•Sulphates are associated generally with calcium, magnesium and sodium ions.

•Sulphates in drinking water causes a laxative effect and leads to scale formation in

boilers.
•It also causes odor and corrosion problems under aerobic conditions. Sulphate should

be less than 50 mg/L, for some industries.

•Desirable limit for drinking water is 150 mg/L. May be extended upto 400 mg/L.
Iron
•Iron is found on earth mainly as insoluble ferric oxide.

•When it comes in contact with water, it dissolves to form ferrous bicarbonate under

favorable conditions.
•This ferrous bicarbonate is oxidized into ferric hydroxide, which is a precipitate.

•Under anaerobic conditions, ferric ion is reduced to soluble ferrous ion.

•Iron can impart bad taste to the water, causes discoloration in clothes and incrustations

in water mains.
•IS value for drinking water is 0.3 to 1.0 mg/L.
Solids
•The sum total of foreign matter present in water is termed as 'total solids'.

•Total solids is the matter that remains as residue after evaporation of the sample and its

subsequent drying at a defined temperature (103 to 105 °C).

•Total solids consist of volatile (organic) and non-volatile (inorganic or fixed) solids.

•Further, solids are divided into suspended and dissolved solids. Solids that can settle by

gravity are settleable solids. The others are non-settleable solids.

•IS acceptable limit for total solids is 500 mg/L and tolerable limit is 3000 mg/L of

dissolved limits.
NitratesNitrates in surface waters occur by the leaching of fertilizers from soil during
surface run-off and also nitrification of organic matter.

•Presence of high concentration of nitrates is an indication of pollution.

•Concentration of nitrates above 45 mg/L cause a disease methemoglobinemia.

•IS value is 45 mg/L.

Bacteriological Characteristics
•Bacterial examination of water is very important, since it indicates the degree of pollution.

•Water polluted by sewage contain one or more species of disease producing pathogenic bacteria.

•Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and many non pathogenic bacteria such as
E.Coli, a member of coliform group, also live in the intestinal tract of human beings.

•Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance to adverse condition than any
other group.

•So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms, the harmful species will be very less.
So, coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of water with sewage and presence of
pathogens.
Methods to estimate the bacterial quality of water

1. Standard Plate Count Test

2. Most probable Number
3. Membrane filter technique
Standard Plate Count Test

1. In this test, the bacteria are made to grow as colonies, by innoculating a known volume of
sample into a solidifiable nutrient medium (Nutrient Agar), which is poured in a petridish.

2. After incubating (35°C) for a specified period (24 hours), the colonies of bacteria (as spots)
are counted. The bacterial density is expressed as number of colonies per 100 ml of sample.
Most Probable Number
1. Most probable number is a number which represents the bacterial density which is
most likely to be present.

2. E.Coli is used as indicator of pollution. E.Coli ferment lactose with gas formation with
48 hours incubation at 35°C.

3. Based on this E.Coli density in a sample is estimated by multiple tube fermentation

procedure, which consists of identification of E.Coli in different dilution combination.

MPN value is calculated as follows:

1. Five 10 ml (five dilution combination) tubes of a sample is tested for E.Coli. If out of
five only one gives positive test for E.Coli and all others negative.

2. From the tables, MPN value for one positive and four negative results is read which
is 2.2 in present case. The MPN value is expressed as 2.2 per 100 ml. These
numbers are given by Maccardy based on the laws of statistics.
Membrane Filter Technique

1. In this test a known volume of water sample is filtered through a membrane with
opening less than 0.5 microns.

2. The bacteria present in the sample will be retained upon the filter paper. The filter
paper is put in contact of a suitable nutrient medium and kept in an incubator for 24
hours at 35°C.

3. The bacteria will grow upon the nutrient medium and visible colonies are counted.
Each colony represents one bacterium of the original sample.

4. The bacterial count is expressed as number of colonies per 100 ml of sample.

Water Quantity Estimation

The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has

to be designed requires following data:

1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in liters per day per head)

2. Population to be served

    

 Quantity = Per capita demand x Population

Water Consumption Rate

It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public,
since there are many variable factors affecting water consumption.

The various types of water demands, which a city may have, may be broken into
following classes:
Sl.No Types of consumption Normal range Average %
( lit/capita/day)

01 Domestic consumption 65-300 160 35

02 Industrial and 45-450 135 30

Commercial demand

03 Public uses including fire 20-90 45 10

demand

04 Losses and Waste 45-150 62 25

Factors affecting per capita demand
1. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to
that for smaller towns as big cities have sewered houses

2. Presence of industries

3. Climatic conditions

4. Habits of people and their economic status

5. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically , medically safe, the consumption will

increase as people will not resort to private wells, etc.

6. Pressure in the distribution system

7. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and
unauthorized use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys

8. Cost of water

9. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways:
on the basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate
Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

Average Daily Per Capita Demand

              = Quantity Required in 12 Months/ (365 x Population)

If this average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the
fluctuations.
Seasonal variation
1. The demand peaks during summer.
2. Firebreak outs are generally more in summer, increasing demand. So, there is
seasonal variation .
Daily variation
1. Depends on the activity.
2. People draw out more water on Fridays and Festival days, thus increasing demand
on these days.
Hourly variations
1. Hourly variations are very important as they have a wide range.
2. During active household working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to
eight in the evening, the bulk of the daily requirement is taken.
3. During other hours the requirement is negligible.
4. Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied
during short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply.
To meet all the fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes
must be properly proportioned.

The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system must
be designed to meet the peak demand.

The effect of monthly variation influences the design of storage reservoirs and the hourly
variations influences the design of pumps and service reservoirs.

Maximum daily demand = 1.8 x average daily demand

Maximum hourly demand of maximum day i.e. Peak demand

               = 1.5 x average hourly demand
               = 1.5 x Maximum daily demand/24
               = 1.5 x (1.8 x average daily demand)/24
               = 2.7 x average daily demand/24
               = 2.7 x annual average hourly demand
Design Periods & Population Forecast

1. The design period (the period of use for which a structure is designed)
is usually determined by the future difficulties to acquire land or replace a
structure or pipeline, the cost of money, and the rate of growth of the community
or facility served.

2. In general, large dams and transmission mains are designed to function for 50 or
more years; wells, filter plants, pumping stations, and distribution systems for 25
years; and water lines less than 12 in. in diameter for the full future life.

3. When interest rates are high or temporary or short term use is anticipated, a
lesser design period would be in order.
Population Forecasting Methods
• The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below.

• The particular method to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city
depends largely on the factors discussed in the methods, and the selection is left to
the discretion and intelligence of the designer.

1. Arithmetic Increase Method

2. Geometric Increase Method

3. Incremental Increase Method

4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method

5. Simple Graphical Method

6. Comparative Graphical Method

7. Ratio Method

8. Logistic Curve Method

Arithmetic Increase Method

This method is based on the assumption that the population increases at a constant
rate; i.e. dP/dt=constant=k;

Pt= P0+kt

This method is most applicable to large and established cities.

Geometric Increase Method

This method is based on the assumption that percentage growth rate is constant i.e.
dP/dt=kP;

P n = P (1+i/100)n

This method must be used with caution, for when applied it may produce too large
results for rapidly grown cities in comparatively short time.

This would apply to cities with unlimited scope of expansion.

As cities grow large, there is a tendency to decrease in the rate of growth.

Incremental Increase Method
1. Growth rate is assumed to be progressively increasing or decreasing, depending

upon whether the average of the incremental increases in the past is positive or

negative.

2. The population for a future decade is worked out by adding the mean arithmetic

increase to the last known population as in the arithmetic increase method, and to

this is added the average of incremental increases, once for first decade, twice for

second and so on.

Decreasing Rate of Growth Method

In this method, the average decrease in the percentage increase is worked out, and is
then subtracted from the latest percentage increase to get the percentage increase of
next decade.

Simple Graphical Method

In this method, a graph is plotted from the available data, between time and population.

The curve is then smoothly extended up to the desired year.

This method gives very approximate results and should be used along with other

forecasting methods.
Comparative Graphical Method

1. In this method, the cities having conditions and characteristics similar to the city

whose future population is to be estimated are selected.

2. It is then assumed that the city under consideration will develop, as the selected

similar cities have developed in the past.

Ratio Method
1. In this method, the local population and the country's population for the last four to
five decades is obtained from the census records.

2. The ratios of the local population to national population are then worked out for these
decades.

3. A graph is then plotted between time and these ratios, and extended up to the design
period to extrapolate the ratio corresponding to future design year.

4. This ratio is then multiplied by the expected national population at the end of the
design period, so as to obtain the required city's future population.

Drawbacks

1. Depends on accuracy of national population estimate.

2. Does not consider the abnormal or special conditions which can lead to population
shifts from one city to another.
Logistic Curve Method
The three factors responsible for changes in population are :

• Births

• Deaths, and

• Migrations

1. Logistic curve method is based on the hypothesis that when these varying influences
do not produce extraordinary changes, the population would probably follow the
growth curve characteristics of living things within limited space and with limited
economic opportunity.

2. The curve is S-shaped and is known as logistic curve.

Logistic Curve
Intake Structure

The basic function of the intake structure is to help in safely withdrawing water from the
source over predetermined pool levels and then to discharge this water into the
withdrawal conduit (normally called intake conduit), through which it flows up to water
treatment plant.
Intake Structure
Factors Governing Location of Intake
1. As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that the cost of
conveying water to the city is less.

2. The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw best quality water
from the source, thereby reducing load on the treatment plant.

3. The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity of the point of
disposal of wastewater.

4. The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required at a

future date.

5. The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the
driest period of the year.

6. The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should not get
flooded. Moreover, the flood waters should not be concentrated in the vicinity of the
intake.
Pumping

A pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.

It lifts water from a lower to a higher level and delivers it at high pressure.

Pumps are employed in water supply projects at various stages for following purposes:

1. To lift raw water from wells

2. To deliver treated water to the consumer at desired pressure

3. To supply pressured water for fire hydrants

4. To boost up pressure in water mains

5. To fill elevated overhead water tanks

6. To back-wash filters

7. To pump chemical solutions, needed for water treatment

Conveyance

There are two stages in the transportation of water

1. Conveyance of water from the source to the treatment plant.

2. Conveyance of treated water from treatment plant to the distribution system.

In the first stage water is transported by gravity or by pumping or by the combined action
of both, depending upon the relative elevations of the treatment plant and the source
of supply.

In the second stage water transmission may be either by pumping into an overhead tank
and then supplying by gravity or by pumping directly into the water-main for
distribution.
Introduction

The available raw waters must be treated and purified before they can be supplied to the
public for their domestic, industrial or any other uses.

The extent of treatment required to be given to the particular water depends upon the
characteristics and quality of the available water, and also upon the quality requirements
for the intended use.
The layout of conventional water treatment plant is as follows:
Municipal water treatment plant
Depending upon the magnitude of treatment required, proper unit operations are
selected and arranged in the proper sequential order for the purpose of modifying the
quality of raw water to meet the desired standards.

Omani standards for drinking water are given in the table below.
The typical functions of each unit operations are given in the following table:

Unit treatment Function (removal)

Aeration, chemicals use Color, Odor, Taste

Screening Floating matter

Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.

Softening Hardness

Sedimentation Suspended matter

Suspended matter, a part of colloidal matter and

Coagulation
bacteria

Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter, bacteria

Pathogenic bacteria, Organic matter and Reducing

Disinfection
substances
The types of treatment required for different sources are given in the following
table:

Source Treatment required

1. Ground water and spring water fairly free No treatment or Chlorination
from contamination

2. Ground water with chemicals, minerals Aeration, coagulation (if necessary), filtration and
and gases disinfection

3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs with less Disinfection

amount of pollution

4. Other surface waters such as rivers, canals Complete treatment

and impounded reservoirs with a
considerable amount of pollution
Aeration

1. Aeration removes odor and tastes due to volatile gases like hydrogen sulphide and
due to algae and related organisms.

2. Aeration also oxidize iron and manganese, increases dissolved oxygen content in
water, removes CO2 and reduces corrosion and removes methane and other
flammable gases.

3. Principle of treatment underlines on the fact that volatile gases in water escape into
atmosphere from the air-water interface and atmospheric oxygen takes their place in
water, provided the water body can expose itself over a vast surface to the
atmosphere.
Types of Aerators
1. Gravity aerators

2. Fountain aerators

3. Diffused aerators

4. Mechanical aerators.

Gravity Aerators (Cascades)

In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large area of water is
exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.
Cascade type aerator
Fountain Aerators
1. These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a fine spray.
Each nozzle is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter discharging about 18 to 36 l/h.
2. Nozzle spacing should be such that each m3 of water has aerator area of 0.03 to
0.09 m2 for one hour.
Injection or Diffused Aerators
1. It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates, fixed at the bottom
to release fine air bubbles from compressor unit.
2. The tank depth is kept as 3 to 4 m and tank width is within 1.5 times its depth. If
depth is more, the diffusers must be placed at 3 to 4 m depth below water surface.
3. Time of aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4 litres of air is required for 1 litre of
water.
Mechanical Aerators
1. Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either submerged or at
the surface.
Mechanical aerators
Diffused Aeration
Fountain aerators
Settling

Solid liquid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two phases

1. Clarified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank (overflow).

2. Concentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank (underflow).

Purpose of Settling

1. To remove coarse dispersed phase.

2. To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.

3. To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.

4. To settle the sludge (biomass) after activated sludge process / tricking filters.
Principle of Settling

1. Suspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than that of water
tend to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence is retarded by offering
storage.

2. Basin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.

3. Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling tank is called
the detention period.
Types of Settling

Type I: Discrete particle settling - Particles settle individually without interaction with

neighboring particles.

Type II: Flocculent Particles – Flocculation causes the particles to increase in mass

and settle at a faster rate.

Type III: Hindered or Zone settling –The mass of particles tends to settle as a unit with

individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to each other.

Type IV: Compression – The concentration of particles is so high that sedimentation

can only occur through compaction of the structure.

Types of Settling
Types of Settling Tanks

1. Sedimentation  tanks  may  function  either  intermittently  or continuously.

2. The intermittent tanks also called quiescent type tanks are those which store water
for a certain period and keep it in complete rest.

3. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only reduced and the water is not
brought to complete rest as is done in an intermittent type.

4. Settling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan.

5. Long narrow rectangular tanks with horizontal flow are generally preferred to the
circular tanks with radial or spiral flow.
Rectangular sedimentation Tank
Rectangular Sedimentation Tank
Circular Sedimentation Tank
Long Rectangular Settling Basin

Long rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control for large volumes
is easier with this configuration.

A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2 to 4 times their width.

The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping.

A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper continuously pulls the settled material into a
sludge hopper from where it is pumped out periodically.
A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional zones:

Inlet zone: Region in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross section such

that the flow through settling zone follows horizontal path.

Settling zone: Settling occurs under quiescent conditions.

Outlet zone: Clarified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet weir.

Sludge zone: For collection of sludge below settling zone.

Design Details

1. Detention period: for plain sedimentation: 3 to 4 h, and for coagulated sedimentation:

2 to 2.5 h.

2. Velocity of flow: Not greater than 30 cm/min (horizontal flow).

3. Tank dimensions: L:B = 3 to 5:1. Generally L= 30 m (common) maximum 100 m.

Breadth= 6 m to 10 m. Circular: Diameter not greater than 60 m. generally 20 to 40
m.

4. Depth: 2.5 to 5.0 m (3 m).

5. Surface Overflow Rate: For plain sedimentation 12000 to 18000 L/d/m2 tank area; for
thoroughly flocculated water 24000 to 30000 L/d/m2 tank area.

6. Slopes: Rectangular 1% towards inlet and circular 8%.

Sedimentation Tank Design

Problem: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million liters of raw water
per day. The detention period may be assumed to be 3 hours.

Solution: Raw water flow per day is 2.4 x 106 l. Detention period is 3h.

Volume of tank = Flow x Detention period = 2.4 x 103 x 3/24 = 300 m3

Assume depth of tank = 3.0 m.

Surface area = 300/3 = 100 m2

L/B = 3 (assumed). L = 3B.

      3B2 = 100 m2 i.e. B = 5.8 m

       L = 3B = 5.8 X 3 = 17.4 m

Hence surface loading (Overflow rate) = 2.4 x 106 = 24,000 l/d/m2 < 40,000 l/d/m2 (OK)
General Properties of Colloids

Colloidal particles are so small that their surface area in relation to mass is very large.

Electrical properties: All colloidal particles are electrically charged. If electrodes from a
D.C. source are placed in a colloidal dispersion, the particles migrate towards the
pole of opposite charge.

Colloidal particles are in constant motion because of bombardment by molecules of

dispersion medium. This motion is called Brownian motion (named after Robert
Brown who first noticed it).

Tyndall effect: The Tyndall effect is an effect of light scattering by colloidal particles or
particles in suspension. It is named after the 19th century Irish scientist John Tyndall.
Flour suspended in water appears to be blue
because blue light is scattered by the flour
particles more strongly than red light
Adsorption:

1. Colloids have high surface area and hence have a lot of active surface for adsorption
to occur.

2. The stability of colloids is mainly due to preferential adsorption of ions. There are two
types of colloids:

Lyophobic colloids: that are solvent hating. These are irreversible upon heating. e.g.
inorganic colloids, metal halides.

Lyophilic colloids: that are solvent loving. These are reversible upon heating. e.g.
organics in water.
Coagulation and Flocculation

• Colloidal particles are difficult to separate from water because they do not settle by
gravity and are so small that they pass through the pores of filtration media.

• To remove, the individual colloids must aggregate and grow in size.

• The aggregation of colloidal particles can be considered as involving two separate

and distinct steps:

1. Particle transport to effect interparticle collision.

2. Particle destabilization to permit attachment when contact occurs.

Transport step is known as flocculation whereas coagulation is the

overall process involving destabilization and transport.
Coagulation in Water Treatment

1. Salts of Al(III) and Fe(III) are commonly used as coagulants in water and wastewater
treatment.

2. When a salt of Al(III) and Fe(III) is added to water, it dissociates to yield trivalent ions,

which hydrate to form aquometal complexes Al(H2O)63+ and Fe(H2O)63+.

3. These complexes then pass through a series of hydrolytic reactions in which H2O

molecules in the hydration shell are replaced by OH- ions to form a variety of soluble
species such as Al(OH)2+ and Fe(OH)2+.

4. These products are quite effective as coagulants as they adsorb very strongly onto
the surface of most negative colloids.
Jar Test

1. The jar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum
operating conditions for water or wastewater treatment.

2. This method allows adjustments in pH, variations in coagulant or polymer dose,

alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different coagulant or polymer types, on a
small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale treatment operation.

Jar Testing Apparatus

1. The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir the contents of six 1 liter
containers.

2. One container acts as a control while the operating conditions can be varied among
the remaining five containers.

3. A rpm gage at the top-center of the device allows for the uniform control of the mixing
speed in all of the containers.
Jar test apparatus
Jar Test Procedure

Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used
as a control while the other 5 containers can be adjusted depending on what conditions
are being tested.

For example, the pH of the jars can be adjusted or variations of coagulant dosages can
be added to determine optimum operating conditions.

Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for 1 minute.
The rapid mix stage helps to disperse the coagulant throughout each container.

Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes.
This slower mixing speed helps promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions
which lead to larger flocs.
Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes. Then
measure the final turbidity in each container.

Residual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal conditions are
determined.

The values that are obtained through the experiment are correlated and adjusted in
order to account for the actual treatment system.
 Filtration

The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure, and may contain some very fine

suspended particles and bacteria in it.

To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still further, the water is filtered through

the beds of fine granular material, such as sand, etc.

The process of passing the water through the beds of such granular materials is known

as Filtration.
How Filters Work:  Filtration Mechanisms

There are four basic filtration mechanisms

SEDIMENTATION : The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of gravity and the

associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the streamlines and
reach the collector.

INTERCEPTION :  Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a large

enough particle follows the streamline, that lies very close to the media surface it will hit
the media grain and be captured.
BROWNIAN DIFFUSION :  Diffusion towards media granules occurs for very small

particles, such as viruses. Particles move randomly about within the fluid, due to thermal

gradients. This mechanism is only important for particles with diameters < 1 micron.

INERTIA :  Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast enough to

travel off their streamlines and bump into media grains.

Filter Materials

Sand

1. Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media.

2. The size of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called effective size.

3. The effective size, i.e. D10 may be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through

which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight will pass.

4. The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured and

expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient.

5. The uniformity coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size

in mm through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size

of the sand.
Gravel

The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water to move

freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.

Other materials

Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as filter media. Anthrafilt is made

from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without smoke or flames. It is

cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.

Types of Filter

Slow sand filter

1. They consist of fine sand with an effective size of about 0.2 mm supported by gravel.

2. They capture particles near the surface of the bed and are usually cleaned by
scraping away the top layer of sand that contains the particles.

3. Filtration rate in SSFs range from 0.12 m/h to 0.32 m/h.

Rapid-sand filter

1. They consist of larger sand grains( 0.35 mm to 1.0 mm) supported by gravel and
capture particles throughout the bed.

2. They are cleaned by backwashing water through the bed to 'lift out' the particles.

3. Filtration rate in RSFs range from 2.5 m/h to 5.0 m/h

Multimedia filters:

1. They consist of two or more layers of different granular materials, with different
densities. Usually, anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used.

2. The different layers combined may provide more versatile collection than a single
sand layer.

3. Because of the differences in densities, the layers stay neatly separated, even after
backwashing.
Slow Sand Filter
Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters

Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while

in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to
90 cm.

Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity
coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35
to 0.55 and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.

Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in
RSF it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area.

Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite
flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.

Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF. However, water may
be disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF.

Method of cleaning: In SSF cleaning is done through Scrapping and removing of the
top 1.5 to 3 cm thick, while in RSF, it is done through backwashing.
Introduction

The primary purpose of disinfecting water supplies is to inactivate microbial pathogens to

prevent the spread of waterborne diseases.

Waterborne diseases are typically caused by enteric pathogens which belong to the
group of organisms transmitted by the faecal–oral route.

These pathogens comprise a diverse group of organisms that serve as the agents of
waterborne disease including bacterial, viral and protozoan species (Table 9.1).
Disinfection of water supplies on a continuous basis was first attempted in England in
1904, and from 1912, with the development of the facilities for feeding gaseous chlorine,
spread rapidly.

This played a large role in the reduction of the death rate due to typhoid.
Definition: Disinfection

The process designed to kill or inactivate most microorganisms in wastewater, including

essentially all pathogenic (disease causing) bacteria.

Definition: Sterilization

The removal or destruction of all microorganisms, including pathogenic and other

bacteria, vegetative forms and spores.

Disinfection vs. Sterilization

1. Disinfection is the process that selectively kills or inactivates bacteria, protozoa, and
viruses which are harmful to people's health – Water-borne pathogens.

2. Sterilization is the process that kills all organisms.

Disinfection is most commonly accomplished by the use of either:

1. Chemical agents (chlorine and its compounds, bromine, iodine, ozone, heavy metals
and related compounds and hydrogen peroxide) or

2. Physical agents including heat, light or physical separation by micro- filtration.

Process science

Two factors govern the effectiveness of the disinfection process:

1. The contact time and

2. The concentration of the disinfecting agent.

The inactivation of micro-organisms was found by Chick in 1908 to be characterized by a

first-order rate law.

Where N is the number of viable organisms and k is the reaction rate constant
dependent upon the disinfectant, the percentage kill required and the type of micro-
organism.
It was subsequently revealed that the rate constant, k, relates to the concentration of
disinfectant, C:

Where n is the coefficient of dilution and k is independent of disinfectant concentration.

The Chick–Watson law may then be integrated to give the following relationship for
batch reactions:

This relationship assists the design of disinfection process systems and allows the
comparison of different disinfectants to be easily made.
Chlorine

Chlorine is by far the most common oxidant used in water treatment .

It is supplied

1. either under pressure as a liquefied gas (Cl2), or as sodium hypochlorite (bleach)

containing about 13% available Cl2 or

2. as solid calcium hypochlorite (tropical bleach or bleaching powder) containing 30%

available chlorine.

The advantage of chlorine disinfectants is that they form a residual which remains in the
water for long periods and protects it against bacterial contamination in the
distribution system.
Chlorine gas dissolves in water to form hypochlorous acid which further dissociates to
form hypochlorite ions:

At pH levels below 5 almost all the hypochlorous acid is undissociated whilst at pH levels
above 9 dissociation is almost complete.

Hypochlorous acid disinfects by penetrating the bacterial cell walls and attacking the
cytoplasmic layer.

In the unionized form it diffuses more readily through the cell wall than the hypochlorite
(OCl−) anion and therefore is a more efficient biocide, so the process benefits from
maintaining a low pH.
Relationship between measured free residual available chlorine (HOCl, OCl−) and
bactericidal active (HOCl).
The dosage of chlorine required is dependent on the water source, the organism and the
required kill rate.

However, the stability of chlorine is such that dosing to around 0.5– 1.0 mg L−1 after
treatment at the water treatment works is usually sufficient to leave a residual level of

0.1–0.2 mg L−1 chlorine (as Cl2, HOCl or OCl−) at the point of use.

This level is normally taken as being indicative of the water being safe to drink without
imparting a chlorinous taste to the water.
Ozone

1. Ozone (O3) is produced by passing a high voltage electrical corona discharge

through dry air or oxygen.

2. It is a more powerful oxidant than hypochlorous acid and is approximately 5 times

more effective as a disinfectant.

3. Ozone has been a popular treatment process with the UK water utilities. A survey of
six of the UK utility companies showed 31 water treatment works used ozone ranging
from a few MLD through to a 360 MLD plant.

4. Most of these plants though have been primarily installed for the destruction of
refractory organic compounds, and pesticides in particular.

5. Although much less soluble than chlorine, by about 20 times, it requires a shorter
contact time for deactivating most micro-organisms – about 10–12 min is normally
sufficient.
Flow path of ozone in water treatment
Chlorine dioxide

1. Chlorine dioxide can be used as a primary or secondary disinfectant and it is used for
controlling taste and odor as well as zebra mussel control.

2. Chlorine dioxide rapidly inactivates most micro-organisms over a wide pH range and
it is typically more effective than chlorine but is less effective than ozone.

3. Chlorine dioxide is a powerful oxidant and will react with a wide range of organic and
inorganic compounds.
The zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha, is a species of small
freshwater mussel
Ultraviolet light

There is a growing interest in the use of ultraviolet (UV) light to disinfect drinking water
as it has been shown to inactivate a wide range of microorganisms.

Ultraviolet radiation is an electromagnetic radiation of slightly higher frequency than

visible light but rather lower than that of X-rays.

It is responsible for the tanning effect of sunlight and, it is argued, is a major cause of
malignant melanoma or skin cancer.

The UV spectrum is arbitrarily divided into three bands according to the wavelength of
the radiation It is the lowest wavelength (and therefore highest frequency) radiation, in
the UVC band, that has the strongest biocidal properties.
UV radiation is produced commercially by the use of mercury vapour, antimony and
xenon lamps.

Normally the lamp is enclosed in a protective quartz sleeve and its output is expressed
as the UV radiation power measured at the outer surface of the sleeve inWm−2 of
surface area.

Commercial lamps fall into two principal categories:

1. low pressure and

2. medium pressure.
Ultraviolet irradiation owes its bactericidal effect to its ability to penetrate the cell and act
directly on the nuclear DNA.

The radiation does not destroy the bacterial cell material, but disrupts the DNA by
causing adjacent chemical groups on the double helix of the DNA molecule to fuse and
prevent the molecule from replicating.

This means that the bacterium is unable to reproduce and is thus inactivated or not
viable.

UV dose is often measured in millijoules per square centimetre or milliwatts per square
centimetre.
Disinfection by-products
Disinfection by-products (DBPs) are formed when chemical disinfectants react with
natural organic matter and inorganic ions such as bromide and iodine present in water.
Legislation has tightened to control the amount of DBPs allowed in drinking water and
currently the UK allows an upper limit of 100 µg l−1 for trihalomethanes (THMs)
(trichloromethane,dichlorobromomethane, dibromochloromethane and tribromomethane)
based on a spot sample, whilst US regulations allows a maximum of 80 µg l−1.

The US has also imposed a limit on the total of five haloacetic acids (HAAs)
(monochloro-, dichloro-, trichloro-, monobromo- and dibromo-acetic acids) of 60 µg l−1.

Whilst THMs and HAAs are often the major DBPs formed, recent studies have identified
over 500 different DBPs and which one is formed will be very dependent on the water
quality and the disinfectant used.
 Dr.S.Sreedhar Reddy
Assistant Professor
College of Engineering & Architecture
Wastewater Quantity Estimation

The flow of sanitary sewage alone in the absence of storms in dry season is known as
dry weather flow (DWF).

Quantity= Per capita sewage contributed per day x Population

Sanitary sewage is mostly the spent water of the community draining into the sewer
system.

It has been observed that a small portion of spent water is lost in evaporation, seepage
in ground, leakage, etc.

Usually 80% of the water supply may be expected to reach the sewers.
Fluctuations in Dry Weather Flow

Since dry weather flow depends on the quantity of water used, and as there are
fluctuations in rate of water consumption, there will be fluctuations in dry weather
flow also.

In general, it can be assumed that

(i) Maximum daily flow = 2 x average daily flow

(ii) Minimum daily flow = 2/3 x (average daily flow)

Population Equivalent

Population equivalent is a parameter used in the conversion of contribution of wastes

from industrial establishments for accepting into sanitary sewer systems.

The strength of industrial sewage is, thus, written as

Std. BOD5 = (Std. BOD5 of domestic sewage per person per day) x
                   (population
equivalent)
Design Periods & Population Forecast

This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the estimated requirements of
the future .

The future period for which a provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as
the design period.

It is suggested that the construction of sewage treatment plant may be carried out in
phases with an initial design period ranging from 5 to 10 years excluding the construction
period.
Design period is estimated based on the following:

1. Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc.

2. Expandability aspect.

3. Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial, commercial

developments & migration-immigration.

4. Available resources.

5. Performance of the system during initial period.

Population forecasting methods:

The various methods adopted for estimating future populations are given below. The
particular method to be adopted for a particular case or for a particular city depends
largely on the factors discussed in the methods, and the selection is left to the
discretion and intelligence of the designer.

1. Arithmetic Increase Method

2. Geometric Increase Method

3. Incremental Increase Method

4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method

5. Simple Graphical Method

6. Comparative Graphical Method

7. Ratio Method

8. Logistic Curve Method

Wastewater Characterization

To design a treatment process properly, characterization of wastewater is perhaps the

most critical step.

Wastewater characteristics of importance in the design of the treatment process can be

grouped into the following categories:

Temperature
pH
Colour and Odour
Carbonaceous substrates
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Chlorides
Total and volatile suspended solids (TSS and VSS)
Toxic metals and compounds
Temperature

1. Observation of temperature of sewage is useful in indicating the solubility of oxygen

which affects oxygen transfer capacity of aeration equipments and rate of biological
activity.

2. Normally the temperature of domestic and municipal sewage is slightly higher than
that of the water supply.
pH

1. The pH of fresh domestic sewage is slightly more than that of the water supply to the
community.

2. However, the onset of septic conditions may lower the pH while the presence of
industrial wastes may produce extreme fluctuations.

Color and Odor

1. Fresh domestic sewage has slightly soapy and earthy odor and cloudy appearance
depending upon its concentration.

2. With the passage of time, the sewage becomes stale, darkening in color with a
pronounced smell due to microbial activity.
Carbonaceous Constituents

1. Carbonaceous constituents are measured by BOD, COD or TOC analyses.

2. While the BOD has been the common parameter to characterize carbonaceous
material in wastewater, COD is becoming more common in most current
comprehensive computer simulation design models.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

1. The BOD test gives a measure of the oxygen utilized by bacteria during the oxidation
of organic material contained in a wastewater sample.

2. The test is based on the premise that all the biodegradable organic material
contained in the wastewater sample will be oxidized to CO2 and H2O, using
molecular oxygen as the electron acceptor.

3. Hence, it is a direct measure of oxygen requirements and an indirect measure of

biodegradable organic matter.
Chemical Oxygen Demand

1. The COD test is based on the principle that most organic compounds are oxidized to
CO2 and H2O by strong oxidizing agents under acid conditions.

2. The measurement represents the oxygen that would be needed for aerobic microbial
oxidation, assuming that all organics are biodegradable.

Total Organic Carbon

1. The total carbon analyzer allows a total soluble carbon analysis to be made directly
on an aqueous sample.

2. In many cases TOC can be correlated with COD and occasionally with BOD values.

3. As the time required for carbon analysis is generally short, such correlations are
extremely helpful when monitoring treatment plant flows for efficiency control.
Nitrogenous Constituents:

1. The principal nitrogenous compounds in domestic sewage are proteins, amines,

amino acids and urea.

2. Nitrogen may be present in different forms such as (i) organic nitrogen, (ii) albiminoid
nitrogen, (iii) ammonia nitrogen, (iv) nitrite nitrogen, (v) nitrate nitrogen, depending on
the condition of sewage.

3. The determination of various forms of nitrogen helps in the selection of proper

biological treatment units.
Phosphorus

1. Municipal wastewaters contain phosphorus in three different forms: 1. organic

phosphorus, 2. orthophosphorus, and 3. condensed phosphorus.

2. When treating wastewater biologically, bacteria assimilate orthophosphate during

their growth process.

3. In biological wastewater treatment, assimilation is the only means by which

phosphorus is removed, except, possibly, when the water has an unusual chemical
makeup and precipitation onto biological flocs occurs.
Chlorides

1. Chloride ion may be present in combination with one or more of the cations of
calcium, magnesium, iron and sodium.

2. Chlorides of these minerals are present in water because of their high solubility in
water.

3. Each human being consumes about six to eight grams of sodium chloride per day, a
part of which is discharged through urine and night soil. Thus, excessive presence of
chloride in water indicates sewage pollution.
Solids

•Total solids include both the suspended solids and the dissolved solids which are

obtained by separating the solid and liquid phase by evaporation.

•Suspended solids are a combination of settleable solids and nonsettleable solids,

which are usually determined by filtering a wastewater sample through a glass fiber filter

contained in a Gooch crucible or through a membrane filter.

•Settleable solids are those which usually settle in sedimentation tanks during a normal

detention period. This fraction is determined by measuring the volume of sludge in the

bottom of an Imhoff cone after 1h of settling.

Solids remaining after evaporation or filtration are dried, weighed, and then ignited. The
loss of weight by ignition at 600°C is a measure of the volatile solids, which are classed
as organic material. The remaining solids are the fixed solids, which are considered as
inorganic (mineral) matter.

The suspended solids associated with volatile fraction are termed volatile suspended
solids (VSS), and the suspended solids associated with the mineral fraction are termed
fixed suspended solids (FSS).
Toxic Metals and Compounds

1. Some heavy metals and compounds such as chromium, copper, cyanide, which are
toxic may find their way into municipal sewage through industrial discharges.

2. Determination of these assume importance if such waste is to be treated by

biological process or disposed of in stream or on land.
Wastewater Treatment

The raw sewage must be treated before it is discharged into the river stream.

The extent of treatment required to be given depends not only upon the characteristics
and quality of the sewage but also upon the source of disposal, its quality and capacity
to tolerate the impurities present in the sewage effluents without itself getting potentially
polluted

The layout of conventional wastewater treatment plant is as follows:

Standards for discharge of sewage in surface waters

Characteristic of the Tolerance limit for Discharge of Sewage in

Effluent Surface Water Sources

BOD5 20 mg/L

TSS 30 mg/L
 The unit operations and processes commonly employed in domestic
wastewater treatment

Unit Operations/Processes Functions Treatment Devices

Screening Removal of large floating, suspended Bar racks and screens of various
and settleable solids description
Grit Removal Removal of inorganic suspended solids Grit chamber

Primary Sedimentation Removal of organic/inorganic settleable Primary sedimentation tank

solids
Aerobic Biological Suspended Conversion of colloidal, dissolved and Activated sludge process units and its
Growth Process residual suspended organic matter into modifications, Waste stabilisation
settleable biofloc and stable inorganics ponds, Aerated lagoons

Aerobic Biological Attached same as above Trickling filter, Rotating biological

Growth Process contactor
Anaerobic biological growth Conversion of organic matter into CH4 Anaerobic filter, Fluid bed submerged
processes & CO2 and relatively stable organic media anaerobic reactor, Upflow
residue anaerobic sludge blanket reactor,
Anaerobic rotating biological
contactor

Anaerobic Stabilization of same as above Anaerobic digestor

Organic Sludges
Wastewater Treatment

Screening

A screen is a device with openings for removing bigger suspended or floating matter in
sewage which would otherwise damage equipment or interfere with satisfactory
operation of treatment units.

Types of Screens

Coarse Screens: Coarse screens also called racks, are usually bar screens,
composed of vertical or inclined bars spaced at equal intervals across a channel
through which sewage flows.

Bar screens with relatively large openings of 75 to 150 mm are provided ahead of
pumps, while those ahead of sedimentation tanks have smaller openings of 50 mm.
Bar screens are usually hand cleaned and sometimes provided with mechanical devices.

These cleaning devices are rakes which periodically sweep the entire screen removing
the solids for further processing or disposal.

Hand cleaned racks are set usually at an angle of 45° to the horizontal to increase the
effective cleaning surface and also facilitate the raking operations.

Mechanical cleaned racks are generally erected almost vertically. Such bar screens
have openings 25% in excess of the cross section of the sewage channel.
Medium Screens: Medium screens have clear openings of 20 to 50 mm. Bar are
usually 10 mm thick on the upstream side and taper slightly to the downstream side.

The bars used for screens are rectangular in cross section usually about 10 x 50 mm,
placed with larger dimension parallel to the flow.

Fine Screens: Fine screens are mechanically cleaned devices using perforated plates,
woven wire cloth or very closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm.
Fine screens are not normally suitable for sewage because of clogging possibilities.
Velocity

1. The velocity of flow ahead of and through the screen varies and affects its operation.
The lower the velocity through the screen, the greater is the amount of screenings
that would be removed from sewage.

2. However, the lower the velocity, the greater would be the amount of solids deposited
in the channel. Hence, the design velocity should be such as to permit 100% removal
of material of certain size without undue depositions.

3. Velocities of 0.6 to 1.2 mps through the open area for the peak flows have been
used satisfactorily. Further, the velocity at low flows in the approach channel should
not be less than 0.3 mps to avoid deposition of solids.
Activated Sludge Process

The most common suspended growth process used for municipal wastewater treatment
is the activated sludge process as shown in figure:
Activated sludge plant involves:

1. wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension,

2. solid-liquid separation following aeration,

3. discharge of clarified effluent,

4. wasting of excess biomass, and

5. return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.

In activated sludge process wastewater containing organic matter is aerated in an
aeration basin in which micro-organisms metabolize the suspended and soluble organic
matter.

Part of organic matter is synthesized into new cells and part is oxidized to CO2 and
water to derive energy.

In activated sludge systems the new cells formed in the reaction are removed from the
liquid stream in the form of a flocculent sludge in settling tanks.

A part of this settled biomass, described as activated sludge is returned to the aeration
tank and the remaining forms waste or excess sludge.
Activated Sludge Process Variables

The main variables of activated sludge process are

1. The mixing regime,

2. Loading rate, and

3. The flow scheme.

Mixing Regime

Generally two types of mixing regimes are of major interest in activated sludge process:
plug flow and complete mixing.

1. In the first one, the regime is characterized by orderly flow of mixed liquor through the
aeration tank with no element of mixed liquor overtaking or mixing with any other
element. There may be lateral mixing of mixed liquor but there must be no mixing
along the path of flow.

2. In complete mixing, the contents of aeration tank are well stirred and uniform
throughout. Thus, at steady state, the effluent from the aeration tank has the same
composition as the aeration tank contents.
Plug flow
Complete flow mixing
The type of mixing regime is very important as it affects

(1) oxygen transfer requirements in the aeration tank,

(2) susceptibility of biomass to shock loads,

(3) local environmental conditions in the aeration tank, and

(4) the kinetics governing the treatment process

Loading Rate

A loading parameter that has been developed over the years is the hydraulic
retention time (HRT), q, d

q= V         
Q

V= volume of aeration tank, m3, and Q= sewage inflow, m3/d

Another empirical loading parameter is volumetric organic loading which is defined

as the BOD applied per unit volume of aeration tank, per day.
Conventional System and its Modifications

The conventional system maintains a plug flow hydraulic regime.

Over the years, several modifications to the conventional system have been developed
to meet specific treatment objectives.

In step aeration settled sewage is introduced at several points along the tank length
which produces more uniform oxygen demand throughout.

Tapered aeration attempts to supply air to match oxygen demand along the length of
the tank.

Contact stabilization provides for reaeration of return activated sludge from the final
clarifier, which allows a smaller aeration or contact tank.
Completely mixed process aims at instantaneous mixing of the influent waste and
return sludge with the entire contents of the aeration tank.

Extended aeration process operates at a low organic load producing lesser quantity of
well stabilized sludge.
Trickling Filters

Trickling filter is an attached growth process i.e. process in which microorganisms

responsible for treatment are attached to an inert packing material.

Packing material used in attached growth processes include rock, gravel, slag, sand,
redwood, and a wide range of plastic and other synthetic materials.
Trickling Filter
Process Description

The wastewater in trickling filter is distributed over the top area of a vessel containing
non-submerged packing material.

Air circulation in the void space, by either natural draft or blowers, provides oxygen for
the microorganisms growing as an attached biofilm.

During operation, the organic material present in the wastewater is metabolized by the
biomass attached to the medium.

The biological slime grows in thickness as the organic matter abstracted from the flowing
wastewater is synthesized into new cellular material.

The thickness of the aerobic layer is limited by the depth of penetration of oxygen into
the microbial layer.
The micro-organisms near the medium face enter the endogenous phase as the
substrate is metabolized before it can reach the micro-organisms near the medium face
as a result of increased thickness of the slime layer and loose their ability to cling to the
media surface. The liquid then washes the slime off the medium and a new slime layer
starts to grow. This phenomenon of losing the slime layer is called sloughing.

The sloughed off film and treated wastewater are collected by an under drainage which
also allows circulation of air through filter.

The collected liquid is passed to a settling tank used for solid- liquid separation.
Types of Filters

Trickling filters are classified as high rate or low rate, based on the organic and hydraulic
loading applied to the unit.

Sl.No. Design Feature Low Rate Filter High Rate Filter

Hydraulic loading,
1. 1-4 10 - 40
m3/m2.d
Organic loading,
2. 0.08 - 0.32 0.32 - 1.0
kg BOD / m3.d
3. Depth, m. 1.8 - 3.0 0.9 - 2.5
0.5 - 3.0 (domestic
wastewater) up to 8 for
4. Recirculation ratio 0
strong industrial
wastewater.
Process Design
Generally trickling filter design is based on empirical relationships to find the required
filter volume for a designed degree of wastewater treatment.

Types of equations:

1. NRC equations (National Research Council of USA)

2. Rankin's equation

3. Eckenfelder equation

4. Galler and Gotaas equation

NRC and Rankin's equations are commonly used. NRC equations give satisfactory
values when there is no re-circulation, the seasonal variations in temperature are not
large and fluctuations with high organic loading.

Rankin's equation is used for high rate filters.

Rankin's equation:

This equation also known as Tentative Method of Ten States USA has been successfully
used over wide range of temperature. It requires following conditions to be observed
for single stage filters:

Raw settled domestic sewage BOD applied to filters should not exceed 1.2 kg
BOD5/day/ m3 filter volume.

Hydraulic load (including recirculation) should not exceed 30 m3/m2 filter surface-day.

Recirculation ratio (R/Q) should be such that BOD entering filter (including recirculation)
is not more than three times the BOD expected in effluent.
This implies that as long as the above conditions are satisfied efficiency is only a
function of recirculation and is given by:

E =   (R/Q) + 1 
        (R/Q) + 1.5
The Rotating Biological Contactor Process

In the Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) process, the media is in the form of a drum.
The microorganisms grow on this drum.

The drum is slowly rotated, periodically submerging the microorganisms in the

wastewater, where they are able to remove organic materials from the wastewater for
food.
Rotating Biological Contactor