Introduction to Geodetic Surveying

Prof. M R Sivaraman
28th December 2018

Third Talk of the webinar

A Course of Geodesy
Introduction to Geodetic Surveying

Dr. M.R.Sivaraman
Ex Scientist
Space Applications Centre
Ahmedabad
• The dictionary defines the verb survey as, "To determine and delineate
the form, extent, position, etc., of, as a tract of land, by taking linear
and angular measurements, and by applying the principles of geometry
and trigonometry."
• Four traditional surveying techniques (1) Astronomic positioning, (2)
Triangulation, (3) Trilateration, and (4) Traverse are in general use for
determining the exact positions of points on the earth's surface.
• In recent years, modern technological developments have added
several new methods utilizing artificial earth satellites.
• Another field of endeavor, Photogrammetry, has also contributed to
geodetic surveying for many years.
• There are two types of surveying viz. (1) Horizontal Positioning (2)
Vertical Positioning.
 Horizontal Positioning
Astronomic Positioning
• Astronomic positioning is the oldest positioning method.
• The position of a point can be obtained directly by observing
the stars.
• It has been used for many years by mariners and, more
recently, by airmen for navigational purposes. Explorers have
often used the astronomic method to locate themselves in
uncharted areas.
• Geodesists must use astronomic positions along with other
types of survey data such as triangulation and trilateration to
establish precise positions.
• Single astronomic positions not interconnected by geodetic
surveys cannot be related to each other with sufficient
accuracy for the computation of distance and direction
between points.
Astronomic Latitude
• Astronomic latitude is defined as the angle between the
perpendicular to the geoid and the plane of the equator.
• As the name implies, astronomic positions are obtained
by measuring the angles between the plumb line at the
point and a star or series of stars and recording the
precise time at which the measurements are made.
• After combining the data with information obtained from
star catalogues, the direction of the plumb line (zenith
direction) is computed.
• While geodesists use elaborate and very precise
techniques for determining astronomic latitude, the
simplest method, in the northern hemisphere, is to
measure the elevation of Polaris above the horizon of
the observer.
• astronomic latitude is defined as the angle between the
perpendicular to the geoid and the plane of the equator.
Astronomic Longitude

• By referring to a star catalogue, the exact Greenwich

Mean Time the star was over the Prime Meridian is
obtained.

• The difference between the time at the point and the

time at Greenwich is used to compute the astronomic
longitude of the point.

• Since a point of the earth rotates through 360° in 24

hours, the difference in local time between two points
can be easily converted into difference in longitude.
 Astronomic Positioning
• Another astronomic observation related to horizontal
positioning is the astronomic azimuth.
• Very accurate azimuths are used in the controlling of the
orientation of first-order triangulation.
• The astronomic azimuth of some other point Q as seen from P
is defined as the angle between the meridian plane of point P
and the plane containing both Q and the perpendicular to the
geoid at P. This angle is reckoned from north at P clockwise
from O° to 360°.
• Astronomic observations are made by optical instruments-
theodolite, zenith camera, prismatic astrolabe-which all
contain leveling devices.
• When properly adjusted, the vertical axis of the instrument
coincides with the direction of gravity and is, therefore,
perpendicular to the geoid.
• Thus, astronomic positions are referenced to the geoid.
Since the geoid is an irregular, nonmathematical surface,
astronomic positions are wholly independent of each other.
 Triangulation
• The most common type of geodetic survey is known as
triangulation.
• It differs from the plane survey mentioned earlier in that
1. more accurate instruments are used
2. Instrumental errors are either removed or
predetermined so that they can be compensated for in
the computations
3. and more rigorous procedures are employed to reduce
observational errors.
• Another very important difference is that all of the
positions established by triangulation are
mathematically related to each other.
 A Simple Triangulation Network :
Known Data : Length of Baseline AB, Latitude & Longitude of
Points A & B, Azimuth of Line AB
Measured Data : Angles to new Control Points
Computed Data : Latitude & Longitude of Point C and other
points, Length & Azimuth of line AC, Length & Azimuth of all
other lines
Fundamental Geodetic Networks
Great Trigonometrical
Survey of India
 Great Trigonometrical Survey of India
• In India, the maps by Survey of India were prepared with
reference to Triangulation network points based on the
Geodetic Triangulation of India computed on the Everest
Spheroid (a = 6377301.243 m and f = 1.300.8017), first
adjusted in the year 1880.
• The Indian datum has been used for India and several
adjacent countries in South Central Asia like Pakistan,
Burma, Bangladesh etc.
• It is computed on the Everest Spheroid with its origin at
Kalianpur in Central india.
• It has been assumed that both Geoid and Ellipsoid
coincide at Kalianpur and the Geodetic and Astronomical
coordinates are same at Kalianpur (Latitude = 24º 07’
11.26” N, Longitude = 77º 39’ 17.57” E. of Greenwich).
 First Order Triangulation Network
• First-Order (Primary Horizontal Control) is
the most accurate triangulation.
• It is costly and time-consuming using the best
instruments and rigorous computation methods.
• First-Order triangulation is usually used to
provide the basic framework of horizontal control
for a large area such as for a national network.
• It has also been used in preparation for
metropolitan expansion and for scientific studies
requiring exact geodetic data. Its accuracy
should be at least one part in 100,000.
 Second Order Triangulation Network
• Second-Order, Class I (Secondary
Horizontal Control) includes the area
networks between the First-Order arcs and
detailed surveys in very high value land
areas.
• Surveys of this class strengthen the Great
Triangulation Network of India established by
Survey of India and are adjusted as part of
the network. Therefore, this class also
includes the basic framework for further
densification.
• The internal closures of Second-Order, Class
I triangulation should indicate an accuracy of
at least one part in 50,000.
 Second Order Triangulation Network
• The demands for reliable horizontal control
surveys in areas which are not in a high state of
development or where no such development is
anticipated in the near future justifies the need
for a triangulation classified as Second-Order,
Class II (Supplemental Horizontal Control).
• This class is used to establish control along the
coastline, inland waterways and interstate
highways.
• The control data contributes to the National
Network and is published as part of the network.
• The minimum accuracy allowable in Class II of
Second-Order is one part in 20,000.
 Third Order Triangulation Network
• Third-Order, Class I and Class II (Local
Horizontal Control) is used to establish control
for local improvements and developments,
topographic and hydrographic surveys, or for
such other projects for which they provide
sufficient accuracy.
• This triangulation is carefully connected to the
National Network. The work should be performed
with sufficient accuracy to satisfy the standards
of one part in 10,000 for Class I and one part in
5,000 for Class II.
• Spires, stacks, standpipes, flag poles and other
identifiable objects located to this accuracy also
have significant value for many surveying and
engineering projects.
Trilateration Network
Known Data : Length of Baseline AB, Latitude & Longitude
of Points A & B, Azimuth of Line AB.
Measured Data : Length of all Triangle sides
Computed Data : Latitude & Longitude of Point C and other
points, Length & Azimuth of line AC, Length & Azimuth of
all other lines
 Trilateration
• Since very long lines (to 500 miles) could be measured by these
systems, geodetic triangulation networks have been extended over
vast areas in comparatively short periods of time.
• In addition, the surveys of islands and even continents separated by
extensive water barriers have been connected by the techniques.
• The Canadian SHORAN network connecting the sparsely populated
northern coastal and island areas with the central part of the country
and the North Atlantic HIRAN Network tying North America to
Europe are examples of the application of the trilateration technique.
• SHIRAN has been used in the interior of Brazil.
• Only distances are measured in trilateration and each side is
measured repeatedly to insure precision.
• The entire network is then adjusted to minimize the effects of the
observations errors.
• The angles of the triangles are computed so the geodetic positions
are obtained as in triangulation.
Major Trilateration Surveys
Traverse
Traverse
 Traverse
• The simplest method of extending control is called
traverse.
• The system is similar to dead reckoning navigation
where distances and directions are measured.
• In performing a traverse, the surveyor starts at a known
position with a known azimuth (direction) to another point
and measures angles and distances between a series of
survey points.
• With the angular measurements, the direction of each
line of the traverse can be computed; and with the
measurements of the length of the lines, the position of
each control point computed.
• If the traverse returns to the starting point or some other
known position, it is a closed traverse, otherwise the
traverse is said to be open.
• Since electronic distance measuring equipment has
become available, the accuracy of traverse surveys has
increased significantly.
• The tellurometer (microwave) has been used in Australia
to complete a network (Australian Geodetic Datum)
covering that continent.
• The average loop length is about 900 miles; the average
loop closure of this work is 2.2 parts per million.
• The laser equipped geodimeter has been used to
produce internal accuracies better than one part per
million in establishing the transcontinental traverse in the
United States.
• The traverse consists of a series of high-precision length,
angle and astronomic azimuth determinations running
approximately east-west and north-south through the
conterminous states, forming somewhat rectangular
loops.
• This traverse is the "backbone" of a re-adjustment of the
horizontal control network in US.
Transcontinental Traverse
 Vertical positioning
• Vertical surveying is the process of determining heights-
elevations above the mean sea level surface.
• As noted earlier, the geoid corresponds to the mean level
of the open sea.
• In geodetic surveys executed primarily for mapping
purposes, there is no problem in the fact that geodetic
positions are referred to an ellipsoid and the elevations of
the positions are referred to the geoid.
• However, geodetic data for missiles requires an adjustment
in the elevation information to compensate for the
undulations of the geoid above and below the regular
mathematical surface of the ellipsoid.
• The adjustment uses complex advanced geodetic
techniques.
 Vertical Positioning
• Precise geodetic leveling is used to establish a basic
network of vertical control points.
• From these, the height of other positions in the survey
can be determined by supplementary methods.
• The mean sea level surface used as a reference (vertical
datum) is determined by obtaining an average of the
hourly water heights for a period of several years at tidal
gauges.
• There are three leveling techniques-differential,
trigonometric, and barometric-which yield information of
varying accuracy.
• With the instrument locked in position, readings are
made on two calibrated staffs held in an upright position
ahead of and behind the instrument.
• The difference between readings is the difference in
elevation between the points.
 Differential Levelling
• The optical instrument used for differential
leveling contains a bubble tube to adjust it
in a position parallel to the geoid.
• When properly "set up" at a point, the
telescope is locked in a perfectly
horizontal (level) position so that it will
rotate through a 360 arc.
• The exact elevation of at least one point in
a leveling line must be known and the rest
computed from it.
 Differential Leveling

Known Data : Elevation of starting Point A.

Measured data : Elevation differences a,b,c,d etc
Computed Data : Elevation of B,C and all other points
 Trigonometric Levelling
• It involves measuring a vertical angle from a
known distance with a theodolite and computing
the elevation of the point.
• With this method, vertical measurements can be
made at the same time horizontal angles are
measured for triangulation.
• It is, therefore, a somewhat more economical
method but less accurate than differential
leveling.
• It is often the only practical method of
establishing accurate elevation control in
mountainous areas.
 Trigonometric Method
Known Data : Elevation of starting Point A, Horizontal
distances d1, dz, between points
Measured data : All vertical Angles
Computed Data : Elevation of B,C all other points
 Barometric Levelling
• Here the differences in height are determined by
measuring the difference in atmospheric pressure
at various elevations.
• Air pressure is measured by mercurial or aneroid
barometers, or a boiling point thermometer.
• Although the degree of accuracy possible with this
method is not as great as either of the other two, it
is a method which obtains relative heights very
rapidly at points which are fairly far apart.
• It is widely used in the reconnaissance and
exploratory surveys where more exacting
measurements will be made later or are not
required .
Barometric Levelling
Known Data : Elevation of starting Point A, Meteorological
Data
Measured data : Air Pressure at A,B,C and all other points
Computed Data : Elevation of B,C and all other points
 Testing Geodetic Survey Network Adjustments
Precision & Accuracy
• A Distinction between Precision & accuracy will be
useful.
• A general rule of thumb is that precision refers to
repeatability, whilst accuracy refers to the "closeness
to the truth".
• If I measured the distance between two Geodetic
stations 25 times and the spread of my measurements
was only 5 mm, I may conclude that my measurements
were precise (repeatable).
• But if the mean of these measurements was say
25.00055 km (while the true distance is 25 km), the
measurements while being precise and not accurate.
 Precision & Accuracy
• Consider Figure 1 - here the target shooter has been fairly precise
(repeatably hitting roughly the same spot), but assuming the
shooter was aiming for the bull's eye they have not been very
accurate.
• In Figure 2 the shooter has been less precise (the spread is larger),
but has been more accurate - that is closer to the bull's eye, than in
figure 1.
• Figure 3 represents precise and accurate shooting. Note that quite
often in surveying accuracy, or a closeness to the truth, is hard to
quantify.
Testing Geodetic Survey Network Adjustments

Usually the Geodetic network measurements are

adjusted using Least Square technique. This is
because
1.Easy to apply since normal equations are linear
2.Gives a unique solution
3.Provides a covariance matrix of parameters,
allowing statistical testing
4.Can be applied to a wide variety of problems
5.LS estimate is unbiased (on average equal to
the true solution)