Electromotive Force (emf)

• The random movement of electrons within a material does not

constitute an electrical current. This is because it does not result in a
drift in one particular direction. In order to cause the ‘ free ’ electrons
to drift in a given direction an electromotive force must be applied.
• When no current is drawn from a battery it is said to be an ‘open circuit’
and its terminal p.d. is a maximum. This maximum voltage is termed the
electromotive force (e.m.f.) of the battery. Like potential difference,
e.m.f. is measured in volts and can be written as
• e.m.f. = ‘lost’ volts + terminal p.d.
• The electromotive force (e.m.f.), E, of a cell is the p.d. between its
terminals when it is not connected to a load (i.e. the cell is on ‘no load’).
• Thus the emf is the ‘ driving ’ force in an electrical circuit. The symbol
for emf is E and the unit of measurement is the volt (V). Typical sources
of emf are cells, batteries and generators.
• The amount of current that will flow through a circuit is directly
proportional to the size of the emf applied to it
 Potential Difference (p.d.)
• Whenever current flows through a resistor there will be a p.d.
developed across it. The p.d. is measured in volts, and is quite literally
the difference in voltage levels between two points in a circuit.
Although both p.d. and emf are measured in volts they are not the
same quantity.
• Essentially, emf (being the driving force) causes current to fl ow;
whilst a p.d. is the result of current flowing through a resistor.
• Thus emf is a cause and p.d. is an effect. It is a general rule that the
symbol for a quantity is different to the symbol used for the unit in
which it is measured. One of the few exceptions to this rule is that the
quantity symbol for p.d. happens to be the same as its unit symbol,
namely V
 Internal Resistance (r)
• So far we have considered that the emf E volts of a source is available at its terminals when supplying current
to a circuit. If this were so then we would have an ideal source of emf. Unfortunately this is not the case in
practice.
• This is due to the internal resistance of the source. As an example consider a typical 12V car battery. This
consists of a number of oppositely charged plates, appropriately interconnected to the terminals, immersed in
an electrolyte . The plates themselves, the internal connections and the electrolyte all combine to produce a
small but finite resistance, and it is this that forms the battery internal resistance.
• Figure A shows such a battery with its terminals on open circuit (no external circuit connected). Since the
circuit is incomplete no current can fl ow. Thus there will be no p.d. developed across the battery’ s internal
resistance r. Since the term p.d. quite literally means a difference in potential between the two ends of r, then Figure A
the terminal A must be at a potential of 12V, and terminal B must be at a potential of 0V. Hence, under these
conditions, the full emf 12V is available at the battery terminals.
• Figure B shows an external circuit, in the form of a 2Ω resistor, connected across the terminals. Since we
now have a complete circuit then current I will flow as shown. The value of this current will be 5.71 A (the
method of calculating this current will be dealt with early in the next chapter). This current will cause a p.d.
across r and also a p.d. across R . These calculations and the consequences for the complete circuit now
follow:

Figure B
• The p.d. across R is the battery terminal p.d. V. Thus it may be seen that when a
source is supplying current, the terminal p.d. will always be less than its emf. To
emphasise this point let us assume that the external resistor is changed to one of
1.5Ω resistance. The current now drawn from the battery will be 7.5 A. Hence:

• Hence, the battery terminal p.d. has fallen still further as the current drawn has
increased. This example brings out the following points.
• 1 Assuming that the battery ’ s charge is maintained, then its emf remains constant.
But its terminal p.d. varies as the current drawn is varied, such that

• 2 Rather than having to write the words ‘ p.d. across R ’ it is more convenient to
write this as VAB , which translated, means the potential difference between points A
and B.
• 3 In future, if no mention is made of the internal resistance of a source, then for
calculation purposes you may assume that it is zero, i.e. an ideal source.
• A battery of emf 6V has an • A battery of emf 12V supplies a circuit with a current of 5A.
internal resistance of 0.15Ω. If, under these conditions, the terminal p.d. is 11.5V,
determine (a) the battery internal resistance, (b) the
Calculate its terminal p.d. when resistance of the external circuit.
delivering a current of (a) 0.5
A, (b) 2 A, and (c) 10
• As with the vast majority of electrical problems, a simple
sketch of the circuit diagram will help you to visualise the
problem.

Note: This example verifies that the terminal p.d. of

a source of emf decreases as the load on it (the
current drawn from it) is increased.
 Energy (W) and Power (P)
• Energy (W) This is the property of a system that enables it to do work. Whenever work is done energy is transferred from that
system to another one. The most common form into which energy is transformed is heat.
• Thus one of the effects of an electric current is to produce heat (e.g. an electric kettle).
• J. P. Joule carried out an investigation into this effect. He reached the conclusion that the amount of heat so produced was
proportional to the value of the square of the current flowing and the time for which it flowed.
• Once more a constant of proportionality is required, and again it is the resistance of the circuit that is used.
• Thus the heat produced (or energy dissipated) is given by the equation

• and applying Ohm ’ s law as shown

Power (P) This is the rate at which work is done, or at which energy is dissipated. The
• unit in which power is measured is the watt (W). Warning: Do not confuse this unit
symbol with the quantity symbol for energy. In general terms we can say that power is
energy divided by time.

Thus, by dividing each of the energy equations above by t, the following equations for
power result:
 Components in Series:
• The figure below shows three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected end to end, i.e., in series, with a battery source of V volts. Since the
circuit is closed a current I will flow and the p.d. across each resistor may be determined from the voltmeter readings V1, V2 and V3

• In a series circuit,
• (a) the current I is the same in all parts of the circuit and hence the same reading is found on each of the two ammeters shown, and
• (b) the sum of the voltages V1, V2 and V3 is equal to the total applied voltage, V, i.e.

• From Ohm’s law:

Thus for a series circuit, the total resistance is
obtained by adding together the values of the
separate resistances.

R  R1  R2  R3  R4 ...
•
 Parallel networks
• The figure below shows three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 connected across each other, i.e., in parallel, across a battery source of
V volts.
In a parallel circuit:
(a) the sum of the currents I1, I2 and I3 is
equal to the total circuit current, I,
i.e.
and

(b) (b) the source p.d., V volts, is the

same across each of the resistors.
From Ohm’s law:

where R is the total circuit resistance.

 Problem 1. For the circuit shown in Figure Problem 2. For the circuit shown in Figure
below, determine (a) the battery voltage V, (b) below, determine the p.d. across resistor R3. If
the total resistance of the circuit, and (c) the the total resistance of the circuit is 100Ω ,
values of resistance of resistors R1, R2 and R3, determine the current flowing through
given that the p.d.’s across R1, R2 and R3 are 5 V, resistor R1. Find also the value of resistor R2
2 V and 6 V respectively.

Problem 4. Find the equivalent resistance

for the circuit shown below
Problem 3. A 12 V battery is connected in a circuit
having three series-connected resistors having
resistances of 4 ,9 and 11 . Determine the current
flowing through, and the p.d. across the 9 resistor.
Find also the power dissipated in the 11 resistor.