Introduction to Digital Image

Processing

Dr.S.Deepa
Assistant Professor
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
[email protected]
 Outline
► Definition
► Image Sampling and Quantization
► Types of Digital Images
► Stages in Digital Image processing
► Applications

2
 Digital Image
► A digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional
image as a finite set of digital values, called picture
elements or pixels.

► Pixel values typically represent gray levels, colours ,

heights, opacities etc.

► Digitization implies that a digital image is an approximation

of a real scene.

► Common image formats include black and white images,

grayscale images and RGB images.
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 Digital Image Processing
► Digital Image Processing means processing
digital image by means of a digital
computer.

► It uses computer algorithms, in order to get

enhanced image to extract some useful
information.

4
Image Acquisition Process

5
 Introduction
► What is Digital Image Processing?

Digital Image
— a two-dimensional function f ( x, y )
x and y are spatial coordinates
The amplitude of f is called intensity or gray level at the point (x, y)

Digital Image Processing

— process digital images by means of computer, it covers low-, mid-, and high-level
processes
low-level: inputs and outputs are images
mid-level: outputs are attributes extracted from input images
high-level: an ensemble of recognition of individual objects

Pixel
— the elements of a digital image

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 A Simple Image Formation Model

f ( x, y )  i ( x, y )r ( x, y )

f ( x, y ) : intensity at the point (x, y)

i( x, y ) : illumination at the point (x, y)
(the amount of source illumination incident on the scene)
r ( x, y ) : reflectance/transmissivity at the point (x, y)
(the amount of illumination reflected/transmitted by the object)
where 0 < i ( x, y ) <  and 0 < r ( x, y) < 1

7
 Some Typical Ranges of Reflectance

► Reflectance

 0.01 for black velvet

 0.65 for stainless steel

 0.80 for flat-white wall paint

 0.90 for silver-plated metal

 0.93 for snow 8

 Image Sampling and Quantization
► The sampling rate determines the spatial resolution of the
digitized image, while the quantization level determines the
number of grey levels in the digitized image.

► Hence in order to create an image which is digital, we

need to covert continuous data into digital form. There are
two steps in which it is done:
Sampling
Quantization

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 Image Sampling and
Quantization

Digitizing the
amplitude
values
Digitizing the
coordinate
values

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Image Sampling and Quantization

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 Representing Digital Images

► Therepresentation of an M×N numerical

array as

 f (0, 0) f (0,1) ... f (0, N  1) 

 f (1, 0) f (1,1) ... f (1, N  1) 
f ( x, y )  
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M  1, 0) f ( M  1,1) ... f ( M  1, N  1) 

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 Representing Digital Images

► Therepresentation of an M×N numerical

array as

 a0,0 a0,1 ... a0, N 1 

 a a1,1 ... a1, N 1  
A  1,0

 ... ... ... ... 

 
 aM 1,0 aM 1,1 ... aM 1, N 1 

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 Representing Digital Images

► Therepresentation of an M×N numerical

array in MATLAB

 f (1,1) f (1, 2) ... f (1, N ) 

 f (2,1) f (2, 2) ... f (2, N ) 
f ( x, y )  
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M ,1) f ( M , 2) ... f (M , N )

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 Types of Digital Images
► Intensity image or monochrome image: Each pixel
corresponds to light intensity normally represented in gray
scale.

► Color image or RGB image: Each pixel contains a vector

representing red, green and blue components.

► Binary image or black and white image: Each pixel

contains one bit, 1 represents white and 0 represents
black.

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 Image Resolution
► Resolution refers to the number of pixels in an image. The
amount of resolution required depends on the amount of
details we are interested in. We will now take a look at
Image and Intensity Resolution of a digital image.
► Spatial resolution: It is a measure of the smallest
discernible detail in an image. Vision specialists state it
with dots (pixels) per unit distance, graphic designers state
it with dots per inch (dpi).
► Intensity Level Resolution: It refers to the number of
intensity levels used to represent the image. The more
intensity levels used, the finer the level of detail
discernable in an image. Intensity level resolution is usually
given in terms of the number of bits used to store each
intensity level. 16
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 Representing Digital Images

► Discrete intensity interval [0, L-1], L=2k

► The number b of bits required to store a M × N

digitized image

b=M×N×k

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Key Stages in Digital Image Processing

Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 23
Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Image Aquisition
Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 24
25
 Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Image Enhancement
Images taken from Gonzalez & Woods, Digital Image Processing (2002)

Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 26
27
► Image enhancement is the procedure of
improving the quality and information
content of original data before processing.
► For example, you can remove noise,
sharpen, or brighten an image, making it
easier to identify key features.

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Here are some useful examples and methods of image
enhancement:
► Filtering with morphological operators
► Histogram equalization
► Noise removal using a Wiener filter
► Linear contrast adjustment
► Median filtering
► Unsharp mask filtering
► Contrast-limited adaptive histogram equalization (CLAHE)
► Decorrelation stretch

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Correcting nonuniform illumination with morphological
operators.

Enhancing grayscale images with histogram equalization.

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 Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Image Restoration
Images taken from Gonzalez & Woods, Digital Image Processing (2002)

Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 31
 Image Restoration
► To restore extremely blurred or degraded
image. Images blurred due to many factors
like relative motion between camera and a
moving car (eg. Image of a speeding car).

► Inversefilter, Wiener filter & Lucy-

Richardson filters are used to restore
images.
32
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 Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Morphological Processing
Images taken from Gonzalez & Woods, Digital Image Processing (2002)

Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 34
► Morphology is a broad set of image processing operations
that process images based on shapes. Morphological
operations apply a structuring element to an input image,
creating an output image of the same size. 

► The most basic morphological operations are dilation and

erosion. Dilation adds pixels to the boundaries of objects
in an image, while erosion removes pixels on object
boundaries. 

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Dilation

Erosion

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 Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Segmentation
Images taken from Gonzalez & Woods, Digital Image Processing (2002)

Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 38
39
 Types of Segmentation
► Thresholding Segmentation.
► Edge-Based Segmentation.
► Region-Based Segmentation.
► Watershed Segmentation.
► Clustering-
Based Segmentation Algorithms.
► Neural Networks for Segmentation.
https://www.mathworks.com/discovery/image
-segmentation.html
40
 Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Object Recognition
Images taken from Gonzalez & Woods, Digital Image Processing (2002)

Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 41
42
► https://www.mathworks.com/solutions/imag
e-video-processing/object-recognition.html

43
 Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Representation & Description
Images taken from Gonzalez & Woods, Digital Image Processing (2002)

Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 44
45
46
Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Image Compression
Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 47
48
Key Stages in Digital Image Processing:
Colour Image Processing
Image Morphological
Restoration Processing

Image
Segmentation
Enhancement

Image Object
Acquisition Recognition

Representation
Problem Domain
& Description
Colour Image Image
Processing Compression 49
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Applications
&
Research Topics

56
Document Handling

57
Signature Verification

58
Biometrics

59
Fingerprint Verification /
Identification

60
Object Recognition

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Object Recognition Research
reference view 1 reference view 2

novel view recognized

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 Indexing into Databases
► Shape content

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 Indexing into Databases
(cont’d)
► Color, texture

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 Target Recognition
► Department of Defense (Army, Airforce,
Navy)

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 Interpretation of Aerial
Photography
Interpretation of aerial photography is a problem domain in both
computer vision and registration.

66
 Autonomous Vehicles
► Land, Underwater, Space

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Traffic Monitoring

68
Face Detection

69
Face Recognition

70
Facial Expression Recognition

71
 Hand Gesture Recognition
► Smart Human-Computer User Interfaces
► Sign Language Recognition

72
Human Activity Recognition

73
 Medical Applications
► skin cancer breast cancer

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Morphing

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Inserting Artificial Objects into a Scene

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 Companies In this Field In India
► Sarnoff Corporation
► Kritikal Solutions
► National Instruments
► GE Laboratories
► Ittiam, Bangalore
► Interra Systems, Noida
► Yahoo India (Multimedia Searching)
► nVidia Graphics, Pune (have high requirements)
► Microsoft research
► DRDO labs
► ISRO labs
►… 77
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Neighborhood Operations in Images

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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Neighborhood

► Adjacency

► Connectivity

► Paths

► Regions and boundaries

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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)

 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).

 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).

 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)
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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p).

 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

8-adjacent if q is in the set N8(p).

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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

 m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from V are

m-adjacent if

(i) q is in the set N4(p), or

(ii) q is in the set ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(p) has no pixels whose
values are from V.

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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Path
 A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0) to pixel
q with coordinates (xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct pixels with
coordinates

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

 Here n is the length of the path.

 If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.

 We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of adjacency
used.
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 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

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 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent

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 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent

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 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1
1,1 1,2 1,3 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 2 0
2,1 2,2 2,3 0 2 0 0 2 0
0 0 1
3,1 3,2 3,3 0 0 1 0 0 1
8-adjacent m-adjacent

The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3): The m-path from (1,3) to (3,3):
(i) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
(ii) (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)

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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Connected in S
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two pixels
p with coordinates (x0, y0) and q with coordinates (xn, yn)
are said to be connected in S if there exists a path

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where i, 0  i  n, ( xi , yi )  S

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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image

► For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected to p is

called a connected component of S.

► If S has only one connected component, then S is called Connected

Set.

► We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

► Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union forms a

connected set.
► Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be disjoint.

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 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Boundary (or border)

 The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region that
have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
 If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined as the
set of pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the image.

► Foreground and background

 An image contains K disjoint regions, Rk, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru denote

the union of all the K regions, and let (Ru)c denote its complement.
All the points in Ru is called foreground;
All the points in (Ru)c is called background.

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 Distance Measures

► Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y), (s, t),

(u, v) respectively, the distance function D has
following properties:

a. D(p, q) ≥ 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]

b. D(p, q) = D(q, p)

c. D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(q, z)

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 Distance Measures

The following are the different Distance measures:

a. Euclidean Distance :
De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

b. City Block Distance:

D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t|

c. Chess Board Distance:

D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)

93
 Introduction to Mathematical Operations in
DIP
► Array vs. Matrix Operation

 a11 a12   b11 b12 

A B
 a21 a22  
Array
product b21 b22 
operator
 a11b11 a12b12 
A .* B   Array product
 a21b21 a22b22 
Matrix
product
operator  a11b11  a12b21 a11b12  a12b22  Matrix product
A*B 
a b  a b a b 
 21 11 22 21 21 12 22 22 a b

94
 Arithmetic Operations

► Arithmetic operations between images are array

operations. The four arithmetic operations are denoted
as

s(x,y) = f(x,y) + g(x,y)

d(x,y) = f(x,y) – g(x,y)
p(x,y) = f(x,y) × g(x,y)
v(x,y) = f(x,y) ÷ g(x,y)

95
 Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise Reduction

Noiseless image: f(x,y)

Noise: n(x,y) (at every pair of coordinates (x,y), the noise is uncorrelated
and has zero average value)
Corrupted image: g(x,y)
g(x,y) = f(x,y) + n(x,y)

Reducing the noise by adding a set of noisy images, {gi(x,y)}

K
1
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i

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 An Example of Image Subtraction: Mask Mode Radiography

Mask h(x,y): an X-ray image of a region of a patient’s body

Live images f(x,y): X-ray images captured at TV rates after injection of

the contrast medium

Enhanced detail g(x,y)

g(x,y) = f(x,y) - h(x,y)

The procedure gives a movie showing how the contrast medium

propagates through the various arteries in the area being observed.

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An Example of Image Multiplication

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Set and Logical Operations

101
 Set and Logical Operations
► Let A be the elements of a gray-scale image
The elements of A are triplets of the form (x, y, z), where
x and y are spatial coordinates and z denotes the intensity
at the point (x, y).

A  {( x, y, z ) | z  f ( x, y )}
► The complement of A is denoted Ac

Ac  {( x, y, K  z ) | ( x, y, z )  A}
K  2k  1; k is the number of intensity bits used to represent z

102
 Set and Logical Operations
► The union of two gray-scale images (sets) A and B is
defined as the set

A  B  {max(a, b) | a  A, b  B}
z

103
Set and Logical Operations

104
Set and Logical Operations

105
 Spatial Operations

► Single-pixel operations
Alter the values of an image’s pixels based on the intensity.

s  T ( z)

e.g.,

106
 Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations

The value of this pixel is

determined by a specified
operation involving the pixels in
the input image with coordinates
in Sxy

107
 Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations

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 Geometric Spatial Transformations
► Geometric transformation (rubber-sheet transformation)
— A spatial transformation of coordinates

( x, y )  T {(v, w)}
— intensity interpolation that assigns intensity values to the spatially
transformed pixels.

► Affine transform
 t11 t12 0
x y 1   v w 1 t21 t22 0 
t31 t32 1 
109
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 Image Registration

► Input and output images are available but the

transformation function is unknown.
Goal: estimate the transformation function and use it to
register the two images.

► One of the principal approaches for image registration is

to use tie points (also called control points)
 The corresponding points are known precisely in the
input and output (reference) images.

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 Image Registration

► A simple model based on bilinear approximation:

 x  c1v  c2 w  c3vw  c4

 y  c5v  c6 w  c7 vw  c8

Where (v, w) and ( x, y ) are the coordinates of

tie points in the input and reference images.

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Image Registration

113
 Image Transform

► A particularly important class of 2-D linear transforms,

denoted T(u, v)
M 1 N 1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )r ( x, y, u , v)
x 0 y 0

where f ( x, y ) is the input image,

r ( x, y, u , v ) is the forward transformation ker nel ,
variables u and v are the transform variables,
u = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and v = 0, 1, ..., N-1.
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 Image Transform

► Given T(u, v), the original image f(x, y) can be recoverd

using the inverse tranformation of T(u, v).

M 1 N 1
f ( x, y )    T (u , v) s ( x, y, u , v)
u  0 v 0

where s ( x, y, u, v) is the inverse transformation ker nel ,

x = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and y = 0, 1, ..., N-1.

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Image Transform

116
Example: Image Denoising by Using DCT Transform

117
 Forward Transform Kernel
M 1 N 1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )r ( x, y , u , v )
x 0 y 0

The kernel r ( x, y, u, v) is said to be SEPERABLE if

r ( x, y, u , v)  r1 ( x, u )r2 ( y, v )

In addition, the kernel is said to be SYMMETRIC if

r1 ( x, u ) is functionally equal to r2 ( y, v ), so that
r ( x, y, u , v)  r1 ( x, u )r1 ( y, u )
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The Kernels for 2-D Fourier Transform

The forward kernel

 j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )
r ( x, y , u , v )  e
Where j = 1

The inverse kernel

1 j 2 (ux / M  vy / N )
s ( x, y , u , v )  e
MN
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 2-D Fourier Transform

M 1 N 1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )e  j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )

x 0 y 0

M 1 N 1
1
f ( x, y ) 
MN
  T (u, v)e
u 0 v 0
j 2 ( ux / M  vy / N )

120
 Probabilistic Methods
Let zi , i  0, 1, 2, ..., L -1, denote the values of all possible intensities
in an M  N digital image. The probability, p( zk ), of intensity level
zk occurring in a given image is estimated as
nk
p ( zk )  ,
MN
where nk is the number of times that intensity zk occurs in the image.
L 1

 p( z ) 1
k 0
k

The mean (average) intensity is given by

L 1
m= z
k 0
k p( zk )
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 Probabilistic Methods

The variance of the intensities is given by

L 1
 2 =  ( z k  m) 2 p ( z k )
k 0

The n th moment of the intensity variable z is

L 1
un ( z ) =  k
( z
k 0
 m) n
p( z k )

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Example: Comparison of Standard Deviation
Values

  14.3   31.6   49.2

123