Unit-2

Hardware and software Concept

Introduction
 In computer graphics objects are represented as a collection of
discrete element called pixels (smallest screen element of an
image).
 Users can edit graphic objects with the help of keyboard, mouse,
touch sensitive panels on the screen So we can say Graphic devices
are combination of input and output (display) devices.
Input Devices
1. Keyboard:
 This device is mandatory peripheral for any computer. Its
alphanumeric keys derived from traditional typewriter and are
used to enter text strings, while additional keys such as arrow and
function keys, performs special actions.
2. Mouse:
 This is an example of pointing devices which input spatial data to
the computer. As mouse is moved by user’s hand on a flat surface,
a mechanical ball or optical sensor at its base signals the amount of
movement to the computer which correspondingly moves a cursor
on the screen. The user determines the location of the cursor.
Mouse is more than just a pointing device, it has buttons each of
which can be clicked to give binary input.
Input Devices
3. Touchpad:
 Another 2D point device, particularly common on portable
computers, the touchpad is a small rectangular area embedded
with electronic sensors to determine the position of a touching
finger or stylus. Movement of the finger or stylus is echoed by
movement of cursor.
4. Pointing stick:
 It is another 2D pointing device common on portable computers,
the pointing stick is typically a rubber peg located between ‘G’, ‘H’
and ‘B’ keys, which moves the cursor in response to pressure
applied with a finger.
5. Trackball
 This is essentially an upside down mouse with a socket containing a
ball which the user manipulates with his hand to make the cursor
move.
Input Devices
6. Spaceball:
 This is a pointing device with six degrees of freedom versus the two
of an ordinary mouse. It is used in special applications such as
manipulating a camera in a 3D scene: not only is the camera moved
but also rotated, affording it multiple degrees of freedom, each of
which the user controls. The spaceball itself consists of a pressure
sensitive ball which can distinguish different kinds of forces,
including backward/forward, lateral and twist, responding by
moving and orienting the selected object.
7. Tablet:
 This is a digitizing device which has a surface embedded with
sensors to pick up the successive coordinates of a stylus head or
fingertip as it travels over the surface (in effect converting physical
motion into digital data). The user can write or draw on a tablet,
just as on paper with pen, the output being displayed on the
monitor. The monitor is usually separate but on devices like tablet
PC, the display and sensing surface are the same.
Input Devices
8. Haptic device:
 This is a pointing device which gives physical feedback to the user
based on the location of the cursor or possibly, that of an object
being moved along with the cursor. The functioning of heptic
device is like a mouse with a mechanical ball which is programmed
to lock and stop rolling when cursor reaches the side of the screen.
The reaction of user then has is of that cursor running into physical
obstacles at the edge of the screen. The three link arm swiveling on
a ball gives it six degree of freedom. Haptics can be used on
teleoperation of robots and simulated surgery training in medicine
9. Joystick
 This is an input device popular in video games and applications
such as flight simulators. A joystick pivots around a fixed base,
gaining thus two degrees of freedom. Usually it has buttons which
can provide additional input. In a game or simulator setting joystick
is typically used to control object traveling through space.
Input Devices
10. Wheel:
 This is also a input device for games and simulators obviously
derived from car steering wheel and provides rotational input in an
exactly similar manner generally to virtual automobile. Haptic
feedback to give the user a sense of vehicle’s response and even of
the terrain over which it is traveling, is becoming increasingly
popular.
9. Camera:
 This is a input device to capture images from surroundings. It also
provided software to recognize faces, gestures and expressions.
10. Data gloves
11. Touchscreen
12. Gamepad
Input Devices
10. Wheel:
 This is also a input device for games and simulators obviously
derived from car steering wheel and provides rotational input in an
exactly similar manner generally to virtual automobile. Haptic
feedback to give the user a sense of vehicle’s response and even of
the terrain over which it is traveling, is becoming increasingly
popular.
9. Camera:
 This is a input device to capture images from surroundings. It also
provided software to recognize faces, gestures and expressions.
10. Data gloves
11. Touchscreen
12. Gamepad
Input Devices
Output Devices
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube):
 CRT is a device which convert electrical signal (voltage, current) into visual
signal
 CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are
produced when electron beam strikes a pahosphorescent surface. The CRT
in a computer display is similar to the picture tube in a television receiver.
 Heat is supplied to the cathode by passing current through heater element.
The cathode is a cylindrical metallic structure that is rich in electrons.
 A beam of electrons (Cathode rays) emitted by electron gun, passes
through focusing and deflection systems that direct the beam toward
specified positions on the phosphor-coated screen.
 Then phosphor emits a small spot of light at each position contracted by
electron beam.
 As light emitted by phosphor fades very rapidly, so to keep phosphor
glowing is to redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the
electron beam back over the same points. This type of display is called
refresh CRT.
Output Devices
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube):
 The primary components of an electron gun in CRT are heated
metal cathode and a control grid.
 Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing a current through a coil
of wire, called filament, inside cylindrical cathode structures. Due
to this heat, electrons boiled off and then free negatively charged
electrons are accelerated towards the phosphor coating by a high
positive voltage. The intensity of the electron beam is controlled by
setting voltage levels on the control grid, which is a metal cylinder
that fits over the cathode.
 A high negative voltage applied to the control grid shuts off the
beam by repelling electrons and stopping them from passing
through the small hole at the end of the control grid structure. A
smaller negative voltage on the control grid simply decreases the
number of electrons passing through the cathode. Therefore we
can control the brightness of display by varying the voltage on the
control grid.
Output Devices
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube):
 Focusing and deflection coils are together needed to force the
electron beam to converge into a small spot as it strikes the screen
otherwise electrons would repel each other, and the beam would
spread out as it approaches the screen.
 Focusing is accomplished either by electric or magnetic field.
 Electrostatic focusing is generally used in television and computer
graphics monitors.
 Deflecting coils produce extremely low frequency electromagnetic
field that allows for constant adjustment of the direction of the
electron beam.
 There are two sets of deflecting coils: horizontal and vertical.
 Horizontal deflection plates controls the vertical deflection and
vertical deflection plates control the horizontal deflection.
Output Devices
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube):
 When the electrons in the beam collide with phosphor coating they
are stopped and their kinetic energy is absorbed by phosphor. Then
part of beam energy s converted to light and heat and resulting in
screen display.
Output Devices
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube):
Output Devices
Factors affecting on CRT
 Pixel or Pel or Picture Element: It is a smallest addressable screen
element.

 Resolution: Number of pixels per inch that can be drawn

horizontally and vertically. It is nothing but clarity and sharpness
of the picture. High quality resolution is 1280x1024.
 Persistence: The time taken to emit light from the screen to decay
to 1/10th of its original intensity.
 Aspect ratio: It gives the ratio between vertical and horizontal
points necessary to produce equal lines in both directions on the
screen. The standard aspect ratio is 4:3 or 5:4.
 Addressability: It is a measure of spacing between centers of
vertical and horizontal lines.
Output Devices
Factors affecting on CRT
 Refresh rate:Due to phosphorescence property of phosphor atom,
the phosphor glows when electron beam strikes the certain part of
the screen. After some time, the intensity of the glowing phosphor
starts to reduce. In such, it is necessary to maintain the stable
image, for this the electron beam must move horizontally and
vertically and then return to redraw it a number of times per
second. If the electron beam takes too long to refresh, it becomes
visible as a flicker in the image. So refresh rate is the number of
times per second the display is able to draw a new image. This is
measured in Hz.
Two types of Refresh CRT’s
 Raster Scan:
 Raster scan display is the most common method of drawing
images on a CRT screen. In this, horizontal and vertical deflection
signals are generated to move a beam all over the screen in a
pattern for displaying an image.
 In this, the electron beam is swept across the screen one row at a
time from top to bottom.
 The electron beam sweeps back and forth from left to right across
the screen. The beam is on while it moves from left to right. The
beam is off when it moves back from right to left. This process is
called horizontal retrace.
 As soon as beam reaches the bottom of the screen, it turned off
and rapid move back to the top left to start again. This process is
called vertical retrace.
 In raster scan display, it maintains the steady image on the screen
by repeating scanning of the same image. This process is called
refreshing of a screen. The refreshing on rsater scan is carried out
at the rate of 60 to 80 frames per second
• The architecture of Raster display. It
consists of a display controller, CPU,
video controller, refreshes buffer,
keyboard, mouse, and CRT.
• The display image is stored in the form
of 1’s and 0’s in the refresh buffer.
• The video controller reads this refresh
buffer and produces the actual image
on screen.
• It will scan one line at a time from top to bottom & then back to the
top.
• The screen image is maintained by repeatedly scanning the same
image. This process is known as Refreshing of Screen.
• In raster scan displays a special area of memory is dedicated to
graphics This memory is called Frame Buffer.
• Frame buffer holds set of intensity values for all the screen points
• That intensity is retrieved from frame buffer and display on screen
one row at a time.
Two types of Refresh CRT’s
 Random Scan (Vector Scan):
 A CRT as a random scan display unit, has an electron beam
directed only to the part of the screen where a picture is to be
drawn rather than scanning from left to right and top to bottom as
in raster scan. Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a
time.

 These are also referred to as vector display or stroke writing or

calligraphic displays.
 Each line segments is drawn on the screen by directing the beam
to move from one point on the screen to the next, where its x and
y coordinates defines each point.
Two types of Refresh CRT’s
 Random Scan (Vector Scan):
 Picture definition is stored as a set of line drawing commands in
an area of memory referred to as refresh display file.
 To display a specified picture, the system cycles through the set of
commands in display file, drawing each component line in turn.
 After all line drawing commands are process, the system cycles
back to the first line command in the first.
 Random scan displays are designed to draw all the component
lines of picture 30 to 60 times each second.
Two types of Refresh CRT’s
 Random Scan (Vector Scan):
Image shows the architecture of vector display.
It consists of display controller, CPU, display
buffer memory and CRT.
Display controller is connected as an I/O
peripheral to the CPU.
Display buffer stores computer produced
display list or display program.
The Program contains point & line plotting commands with end point
co-ordinates as well as character plotting commands.
Display controller interprets command and sends digital and point co-
ordinates to a vector generator.
Vector generator then converts the digital co-ordinate value to analog
voltages for beam deflection circuits that displace an electron beam
which points on the CRT’s screen.
In this technique beam is deflected from end point to end point hence
this techniques is also called random scan.
Two types of Refresh CRT’s
 Random Scan (Vector Scan):
We know as beam strikes phosphors coated
screen it emits light but that light decays after
few milliseconds and therefore it is necessary
to repeat through the display list to refresh
the screen at least 30 times per second to
avoid flicker.
Difference between Raster scan and Random scan
display
Raster scan Random scan
It draws the image by scanning It draws the image by directing
one row at a time. the electron beam directly to the
part of the screen, where image is
to be drawn.
They generally have resolution They have higher resolution than
limited to pixel size raster scan display
Lines are jiggered, and curves Linen plots are straight and curves
are less smooth are smooth
They are more suited to They are more suited to line
geometric area drawing drawing application eg. CRO and
applications eg. Monitors, TV, pen plotter.
etc
Difference between Raster scan and Random scan
display
Raster scan Random scan
Refresh rate is 60 to 80 frame Refresh rate is 30 to 60 frame per
per seconds seconds
Screen points/pixel are used to Mathematical functions are used
draw an image to draw an image.
Color CRT monitor
Color CRT monitor generates a range of colors by combining the emitted light
from multilayered phosphor coated color CRT.
There are two basic techniques used to produce color display:
-Beam penetration technique
-Shadow mask technique
Beam penetration technique is used with Random scan display where CRT is
coated with 2 layer of phosphor i.e. red and green.
The outer layer is coated with red phosphor and inner layer is coated with
green phosphor.
The color depends how far electron beam penetrates into phosphor layers.
When the speed of electron beam is low then electron beam strike only red
phosphor and thus produce red traces on screen.
When the speed of electron beam is high then electron beam penetrates into
green phosphor and produce green traces.
When the speed of electron beam is medium it produce the color of
combination of red and green like orange and yellow.
The advantages of beam penetration is that it is cost effective.
The disadvantages is that only four color can be generated so the quality is
not good.
Color CRT monitor

Beam Penetration Technique

Color CRT monitor
Shadow mask technique: It is used with Raster scan display where
CRT can produce a wide range of colors.
Three phosphor color (red, green, blue) dots are usedat each pixel
position and there is three electron gun are used one for each color
dot.

A shadow mask grid used just behind the phosphor coated screen.
The color dot pattern can be arranged in two mays one is triangular
(delta) and other is in-line (high resolution color CRT).
Color CRT monitor
Shadow mask technique:
In older version of CRT monitor delta method is used. It can have 8
color maximum as for one electron gun we give 1 bit range then we
have 3 bit, so we can set 8 color.
We can enhance the color range. For this, we use 8 bit for each
electron gun. Then for three electron gun we have total 24 bit. So 224
means we can generate millions of colors.
So, in enhance color range, 24 bits per pixel are used in the frame
buffer and nearly 17 million color choice for each pixel.

Delta Electron In-line Electron

Gun arrangement gun arrangement
Direct View Storage Tube (DVST)
It is CRT with a long persistence phosphor.
It is the advance version of random scan system with high resolution.
It uses the storage grid which stores the screen information as a charge
distribution just behind the phosphor coated screen.
It has two types of electron guns:
1. Primary gun or writing : It stores the picture pattern. It stores the picture
from refresh buffer to the storage grid.
2. Flood gun: It maintain the picture display. It generates low speed electrons.

The primary gun produce high speed electrons which strike on the storage grid
also called mesh grid to draw the picture pattern. It contains the +ve charge
particles which contains the picture information. When electron strikes on the
storage grid then picture information is displayed on the screen.
We also have collector which controls the acceleration speed of the electrons.
Collector has negative charge particles so it helps to repel the electron which
slow down the speed of the electron. After this electron beam strike the storage
grid and picture is displayed in the screen.
The low speed electrons then penetrate storage grid and strike the phosphor
coating without affecting eh positive charge pattern on the storage grid.
Direct View Storage Tube (DVST)
Color model
A color model is a specification of a 3D color coordinate system and a
visible subset in the coordinate system within which all colors in a
particular color gamut lie. For example, RGB color model is the unit
cube subset of 3D cartesian coordinate system.
Color gamut is the full range of colors visible to the human eye. We
usually use three colors called primary colors, to produce a range of
colors called color gamut.
Color model is an abstract mathematical model, describing the ways
colors can be represented.
In other word color model is a method for explaining the properties or
behavior of color within some particular context.
No single model can explain all aspects of color, so we make use of
different models to help describe the different perceived
characteristics of color.
Color model
There are different color models: RGB which is hardware oriented color
models used with color CRT monitors, YIQ for the broadcast TV color
system, CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) for some color printing devices.
All these color models are hardware oriented so they are not easy to
use.
Properties of light
What we perceive as light or different colors is a narrow frequency band within
the electromagnetic spectrum.
Each frequency value within the visible band corresponds to a distinct color. At
low frequency end is a red color (4.3×1014 hertz) and highest frequency we can
see is a violet color (7.5 × 1014 hertz).
Spectral color range from red through orange and yellow at the low frequency
end to greens, blues and violet at the high end.
As light is an electromagnetic wave we can describee various colors in terms of
frequency f or wavelength λ of the wave.
Light at the red end of the spectrum has a wavlength of approximately 700
nanometers (nm) or millimicron. And wavelength of the violet light at the other
end of spectrum is about 400 nm.
When the light is incident on a surface, some wavelengths are absorbed and
others are reflected. This give us the perception of color of an object. If low
frequencies are predominant in the reflected light, the object is described as red.
In this case, we say the perceived light has a dominant frequency or dominant
wavelength at the red end of the spectrum.
The dominant frequency is also called the hue or color of the light.
We can combine light from two or more sources with different intensities to
produce a range of colors.
Properties of light
Color model : RGB color model
The red, green, blue (RGB) color model is used in color CRT monitors
and raster graphics employs a Cartesian coordinate system. This model
is the best for setting the electron guns for a CRT.
This model is an additive color model in which red, green and blue light
are added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of
colors. It uses light.
The name of the model comes from initials of the three additive
primary colors: red, green and blue.
The main purpose of RGB color model is for sensing, representation
and display of images in electronic systems, such as televisions and
computers as well as conventional photography.
This is an additive model since the phosphors are emitting light.
The subtractive model would be the one in which color is the reflected
light and it uses ink.
Color model : RGB color model
We can represent this model, with the unit cube defined on R, G and B
axes.
The origin represents black and the vertex with coordinates (1,1,1) is
white. Vertices of the cube on the axes represent the primary colors
and the remaining vertices represent the complementary color for
each of the primary colors.
The magenta vertex is obtained by adding red and blue to produce the
triple (1,0,1).
Shades of gray are represented along the main diagonal of the cube
from the origin (black) to the white vertex.
Color model : HSV color model
HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) also called HSB (Hue, Saturation,
Brightness) model, defines a color space in terms of three constituent
components: hue, saturation and value.
HSV model is more intuitive than RGB color model. The user specifies a
color (hue) and then adds white or black.
Changing the saturation parameter corresponds to adding or
subtracting white and changing the value parameter corresponds to
adding or subtracting black.
A 3D representation of HSV model is derived from RGB mode cube. If
we look at RGB, the cube along the gray diagonal, we can see a
hexagon that is HSV hexcone.
Hue is represented as an angle about the vertical axis, ranging from 00
at red through 3600. Hue is given by an angle about the vertical axis
with red at 00, yellow at 600, green at 1200, cyan at 1800, blue at 2400,
and magenta at 3000,
Color model : HSV or HSB color model
Saturation of the color rages from 0 to 100%. It is also sometimes
called as purity. The lower the saturation of a color the more grayness
is present and the more faded the color will appear. If 100%, it signifies
the intense color presence.
Value, also called as brightness of color ranges from 0 to 100%. It is a
nonlinear transformation of RGB color space. 0 represents black and
100 represent the brightest.
Assignment
Describe flat panel display (LED, LCD) and Plasma technology.
Software Standards
Software Standards
The primary goal of standardized graphics software is portability. When
packages are designed with standard graphics functions, software can
he moved easily from one hardware system to another and used in
different implementations and applications. Without standards,
programs designation for one hardware system often cannot be
transferred to another system without extensive rewriting of the
programs. So, software standards helps in portability and machine
independency.
International and national standards planning organizations in many
countries have cooperated in an effort to develop a generally accepted
standard for computer graphics. After considerable effort, this work on
standards led to the development of the Graphical Kernel System
(GKS). This system was adopted as the first graphics software standard
by the International Standards Organization (ISO) and by various;
national standards organizations, including the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). 
Software Standards
Although GKS was originally designed as a two-dimensional graphics
package, a three-dimensional GKS extension was subsequently
developed. The second software standard to be developed and proved
by the standards organizations was PHIGS (Programmer's Hierarchical
Interactive Graphics standard), which is an extension of GKS having
increased capabilities for object modeling, color specifications, surface
rendering, and picture manipulations are provided in PHIGS.
Subsequently, an extension of PHIGS, called PHIGS+ , was developed to
provide three-dimensional surface-shading capabilities not available in
PHIGS.
Software Standards
Standard graphics functions are defined as a set of specifications that is
Independent of any programming language. A language binding is then
defined for a particular high-level programming language. This binding
gives the syntax tor accessing the various standard graphics functions
from this language. For example, the general form of the PHIGS (and
GKS) function for specifying a sequence of n - 1 connected two-
dimensional straight Line segments is:
polyline (n, x, y)
In FORTRAN, this procedure is implemented as a subroutine with the
name GPL. A graphics programmer, using FORTAIN, would invoke this
procedure with the subroutine call statement CRLL GPL (N, X, Y), where
X and Y are one dimensional arrays of coordinate values for the line
endpoints. In C, the procedure would be invoked with ppclyline( n ,
pts ) , where points is the list of coordinate endpoint positions. Each
language binding is defined to make best use of the corresponding
language capabilities and to handle various syntax issues, such as data
types, parameter passing, and errors.
Software Standards
Although PHIGS presents a specification for basic graphics functions, it
does not provide a standard methodology for a graphics interface to
output d e vices. Nor does it specify methods for storing and
transmitting pictures. Separate standards have been developed for
these areas. Standardization for device interface methods is given in
the Computer Graphics Interface (CGI) system. And the Computer
Graphics Metafile (CGM) system specifies standards for archiving and
transporting pictures.