INTRODUCTION

 The combined performance of all the blocks is described in the

specifications. Specifications of an instrument are provided by
different manufacturers in different wrap and quoting different
terms, which sometimes may cause confusion.
 Moreover, there are several application specific issues. Still,
broadly speaking, these specifications can be classified into three
categories:
 (i) static characteristics,
 (ii) dynamic characteristics and
 (iii) random characteristics.

1
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the system when

the input is either held constant or varying very slowly.
 The items that can be classified under the heading static
characteristics are mainly:
 Range (or span)
 Sensitivity
 Linearity
 Hysteresis
 Resolution
 Accuracy
 Precision
2
RANGE (OR SPAN)
 It defines the maximum and minimum values of the inputs or the
outputs for which the instrument is recommended to use.
 For example, for a temperature measuring instrument the input
range may be 100-500 oC and the output range may be 4-20 mA.

3
SENSITIVITY
 It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental output and the
incremental input.
 While defining the sensitivity, we assume that the input-output
characteristic of the instrument is approximately linear in that
range.
 Thus if the sensitivity of a thermocouple is denoted as 100/uV/0C, it
indicates the sensitivity in the linear range of the thermocouple
voltage vs. temperature characteristics.
 Similarly sensitivity of a spring balance can be expressed as 25
mm/kg (say), indicating additional load of 1 kg will cause
additional displacement of the spring by 25mm.
4
SENSITIVITY
 Again sensitivity of an instrument may also vary with temperature
or other external factors. This is known as sensitivity drift.
 Suppose the sensitivity of the spring balance mentioned above is 25
mm/kg at 20 oC and 27 mm/kg at 30oC. Then the sensitivity drift/oC is
0.2 (mm/kg)/oC.
 In order to avoid such sensitivity drift, sophisticated instruments are
either kept at controlled temperature, or suitable in-built temperature
compensation schemes are provided inside the instrument.

5
 LINEARITY
 Linearity is actually a measure of
nonlinearity of the instrument. When we
talk about sensitivity, we assume that the
input/output characteristic of the
instrument to be approximately linear.
 But in practice, it is normally nonlinear,
as shown in the figure. The linearity is
defined as the maximum deviation from
the linear characteristics as a percentage
of the full scale output. Thus,

6
 HYSTERESIS
 Hysteresis exists not only in magnetic
circuits, but in instruments also. For
example, the deflection of a diaphragm
type pressure gage may be different for
the same pressure, but one for increasing
and other for decreasing, as shown in the
figure. The hysteresis is expressed as the
maximum hysteresis as a full scale
reading

7
RESOLUTION
 In some instruments, the output increases in discrete steps, for continuous
increase in the input, as shown in the figure.
 It may be because of the finite graduations in the meter scale; or the instrument
has a digital display, as a result the output indication changes discretely.
 A 3 1/2-digit voltmeter, operating in 0-2V range, can have maximum reading of
1.999V, and it cannot measure any change in voltage below 0.001V.
 Resolution indicates the minimum change in input variable that is detectable.
For example, an eight-bit A/D converter with +5V input can measure the
minimum voltage of 5/(28−1) or 19.6 mV. resolution is also defined in terms of
percentage as:

8
RESOLUTION
 The quotient between the
measuring range and resolution is
often expressed as dynamic range
and is defined as:

 And is expressed in terms of dB.

The dynamic range of an n-bit
ADC, comes out to be
approximately 6n dB.

9
ACCURACY
 Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured value with the actual or true
value, and is expressed in the form of the maximum error (= measured value –
true value) as a percentage of full scale reading.
 Thus, if the accuracy of a temperature indicator, with a full scale range of 0-
500 oC is specified as ±0.5%, it indicates that the measured value will always
be within ±2.5 oC of the true value, if measured through a standard instrument
during the process of calibration.
 But if it indicates a reading of 250 oC, the error will also be ±2.5 oC, i.e. ±1%
of the reading.
 Thus it is always better to choose a scale of measurement where the input is
near full-scale value. But the true value is always difficult to get.
 We use standard calibrated instruments in the laboratory for measuring true
value of the variable. 10
PRECISION
 Precision indicates the repeatability or reproducibility of an instrument (but does not
indicate accuracy).
 If an instrument is used to measure the same input, but at different instants, spread over
the whole day, successive measurements may vary randomly.
 The random fluctuations of readings, (mostly with a Gaussian distribution) is often due
to random variations of several other factors which have not been taken into account,
while measuring the variable.
 A precision instrument indicates that the successive reading would be very close, or in
other words, the standard deviation eσ of the set of measurements would be very small.
 Quantitatively, the precision can be expressed as:

11
PRECISION
 The difference between precision and accuracy needs to be understood
carefully.
 Precision means repetition of successive readings, but it does not
guarantee accuracy; successive readings may be close to each other, but
far from the true value.
 On the other hand, an accurate instrument has to be precise also, since
successive readings must be close to the true value (that is unique).

12
TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
Module 4 13
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVE
 Name different methods for temperature measurement
 Distinguish between the principles of operation of RTD and thermistor
 Explain the meaning of lead wire compensation of RTD
 Differentiate characteristics of a PTC thermistor from a NTC thermistor
 Select the proper thermocouple for a particular temperature range
 Design simple cold junction compensation schemes for thermocouples.

14
INTRODUCTION
 The word temper was used in the seventeenth century to describe the quality of
steel.
 It seems, after the invention of crude from of thermometer, the word
temperature was coined to describe the degree of hotness or coolness of a
material body.
 It was the beginning of seventeenth century when the thermometer – a
temperature measuring instrument was first developed.

15
INTRODUCTION
 Galileo Galilei is credited with the construction of first thermometer, although
a Dutch scientist Drebbel also made similar instrument independently.
 The principle was simple. A bulb containing air with long vertical tube was
inverted and dipped into a basin of water or colored liquid. With the change in
temperature of the bulb, the gas inside expanded or contracted, thus changing
the level of the liquid column inside the vertical tube.
 A major drawback of the instrument was that it was sensitive not only to
variation of temperature, but also to atmospheric pressure variation.

16
INTRODUCTION
 The purpose of early thermometers was to measure the variation of
atmospheric or body temperatures. With the advancement of science and
technology, now we require temperature measurement over a wide range and
different atmospheric conditions, and that too with high accuracy and
precision. To cater these varied requirements, temperature sensors based on
different principles have been developed. They can be broadly classified in the
following groups:
 1. Liquid and gas thermometer
 2. Bimetallic strip
 3. Resistance thermometers (RTD and Thermistors)
 4. Thermocouple
 5. Junction semiconductor sensor
 6. Radiation pyrometer 17
INTRODUCTION
 The purpose of early thermometers was to measure the variation of
atmospheric or body temperatures. With the advancement of science and
technology, now we require temperature measurement over a wide range and
different atmospheric conditions, and that too with high accuracy and
precision. To cater these varied requirements, temperature sensors based on
different principles have been developed. They can be broadly classified in the
following groups:
 1. Liquid and gas thermometer
 2. Bimetallic strip
 3. Resistance thermometers (RTD and Thermistors)
 4. Thermocouple
 5. Junction semiconductor sensor
 6. Radiation pyrometer 18
RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS
 It is well known that resistance of metallic conductors increases with
temperature, while that of semiconductors generally decreases with
temperature.
 Resistance thermometers employing metallic conductors for temperature
measurement are called Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), and those
employing semiconductors are termed as Thermistors.
 RTDs are more rugged and have more or less linear characteristics over a wide
temperature range.
 On the other hand Thermistors have high temperature sensitivity, but nonlinear
characteristics.

19
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
DETECTOR
The variation of resistance of metals with temperature is normally modeled in

the form:

 For a small range of temperature, the expression can be approximated as:

20
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE
DETECTOR
Copper, Nickel and Platinum are mostly

used as RTD materials.
 The range of temperature measurement is
decided by the region, where the resistance-
temperature characteristics are
approximately linear.
 The resistance versus temperature
characteristics of these materials is shown
in the figure, with to as 0oC.
 Platinum has a linear range of operation up
to 650oC, while the useful range for Copper
and Nickel are 120oC and 300oC
respectively.
21
CONSTRUCTION
 For industrial use, bare metal wires cannot be
used for temperature measurement. They must be
protected from mechanical hazards such as
material decomposition, tearing and other
physical damages. The salient features of
construction of an industrial RTD are as follows:
 • The resistance wire is often put in a stainless
steel well for protection against mechanical
hazards. This is also useful from the point of
view of maintenance, since a defective sensor
can be replaced by a good one while the plant is
in operation.

22
CONSTRUCTION
 • Heat conducting but electrical insulating
materials like mica is placed in between the
well and the resistance material.
 • The resistance wire should be carefully
wound over mica sheet so that no strain is
developed due to length expansion of the
wire.

23
THERMISTOR
 Thermistors are semiconductor type resistance thermometers.
 They have very high sensitivity but highly nonlinear characteristics. This can
be understood from the fact that for a typical 2000 Ω the resistance change at
25oC is 80Ω/oC, whereas for a 2000 Ω platinum RTD the change in resistance
at 25oC is 7Ω/oC.
 Thermistors can be of two types:
 (a) Negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) thermistors and
 (b) Positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) thermistors.

24
THERMISTOR

25
THERMISTOR
 The NTC thermistors, whose characteristics are shown in the figure
is more common. Essentially, they are made from oxides of iron,
manganese, magnesium etc. Their characteristics can be expressed
as:

26
THERMISTOR

27
THERMISTOR
 Useful range of thermistors is normally -100 to +300oC.
 A single thermistor is not suitable for the whole range of
measurement.
 Moreover, existing thermistors are not interchangeable. There is a
marked spread in nominal resistance and the temperature
coefficient between two thermistors of same type.
 So, if a defective thermistor is to be replaced by a new thermistor
similar type, a fresh calibration has to be carried out before use.

28
THERMISTOR
 Commercially available thermistors have nominal values of 1K,
2K, 10K, 20K, 100K etc.
 The nominal values indicate the resistance value at 25oC.
Thermistors are available in different forms: bead type, rod type
disc type etc.
 The small size of the sensing element makes it suitable for
measurement of temperature at a point. The time constant is also
very small due to the small thermal mass involved.

29
THERMISTOR
 The nonlinear characteristics of thermistors often creates problem for
temperature measurement, and it is often desired to linearize the thermistor
characteristics.
 This can be done by adding one fixed resistance parallel to the thermistor. The
resistance temperature characteristics of the equivalent resistance would be
more linear, but at the cost of sensitivity.
 The Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistor have limited use and
they are particularly used for protection of motor and transformer windings.
 As shown, they have low and relatively constant resistance below a threshold
temperature TR, beyond which the resistance increases rapidly. The PTC
thermistors are made from compound of barium, lead and strontium titanate.

30
THERMISTOR

31
THERMOCOUPLE
 Thomas Johan Seeback discovered in 1821 that thermal energy can produce
electric current.
 When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected forming two
common junctions and the two junctions are exposed to two different
temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced, the actual value being dependent
on the materials used and the temperature difference between hot and cold
junctions.
 The thermoelectric emf generated, in fact is due to the combination of two
effects: Peltier effect and Thomson effect.
 The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the relationship:

32
THERMOCOUPLE
 Thomas Johan Seeback discovered in 1821 that thermal energy can
produce electric current.
 When two conductors made from dissimilar metals are connected
forming two common junctions and the two junctions are exposed
to two different temperatures, a net thermal emf is produced, the
actual value being dependent on the materials used and the
temperature difference between hot and cold junctions.
 The thermoelectric emf generated, in fact is due to the combination
of two effects: Peltier effect and Thomson effect.

33
THERMOCOUPLE
 The emf generated can be approximately expressed by the
relationship:

 where T1 and T2 are hot and cold junction temperatures in K. C1 and

C2 are constants depending upon the materials. For Copper/
Constantan thermocouple, C1=62.1 and C2=0.045.

34
THERMOCOUPLE

35
THERMOCOUPLE
 Thermocouples are extensively used for measurement of
temperature in industrial situations.
 The major reasons behind their popularity are:
 (i) they are rugged and readings are consistent,
 (ii) they can measure over a wide range of temperature, and
 (iii) their characteristics are almost linear with an accuracy of about
0.05%.
 However, the major shortcoming of thermocouples is low
sensitivity compared to other temperature measuring devices (e.g.
RTD, Thermistor).
36
THERMOCOUPLE MATERIALS
 Theoretically, any pair of dissimilar materials can be used as a
thermocouple. But in practice, only few materials have found
applications for temperature measurement.
 The choice of materials is influenced by several factors, namely,
sensitivity, stability in calibration, inertness in the operating
atmosphere and reproducibility

37
THERMOCOUPLE MATERIALS
 Table-I shows the common types of thermocouples, their types,
composition, range, sensitivity etc.
 The upper range of the thermocouple is normally dependent on the
atmosphere where it has been put.
 For example, the upper range of Chromel/ Alumel thermocouple
can be increased in oxidizing atmosphere, while the upper range of
Iron/ Constantan thermocouple can be increased in reducing
atmosphere.

38
THERMOCOUPLE MATERIALS

39
THERMOCOUPLE MATERIALS

40
41
THERMOCOUPLE MATERIALS
 Table-I shows the common types of thermocouples, their types,
composition, range, sensitivity etc.
 The upper range of the thermocouple is normally dependent on the
atmosphere where it has been put.
 For example, the upper range of Chromel/ Alumel thermocouple
can be increased in oxidizing atmosphere, while the upper range of
Iron/ Constantan thermocouple can be increased in reducing
atmosphere.

42
LAWS OF THERMOCOUPLE:
 The Peltier and Thompson effects explain the basic principles of
thermoelectric emf generation.
 But they are not sufficient for providing a suitable measuring
technique at actual measuring situations.
 For this purpose, we have three laws of thermoelectric circuits that
provide us useful practical tips for measurement of temperature.
 These laws are known as law of homogeneous circuit, law of
intermediate metals and law of intermediate temperatures.

43
LAWS OF THERMOCOUPLE:
 The first law can be explained using (a).
It says that the net thermo-emf generated
is dependent on the materials and the
temperatures of two junctions only, not
on any intermediate temperature.
 According to the second law, if a third
material is introduced at any point (thus
forming two additional junctions) it will
not have any effect, if these two
additional junctions remain at the same
temperatures (b). This law makes it
possible to insert a measuring device
without altering the thermo-emf.
44
LAWS OF THERMOCOUPLE:
 The third law is related to the calibration of the thermocouple. It says, if a
thermocouple produces emf e1, when its junctions are at T1 and T2, and e2
when its junctions are at T2 and T3; then it will generate emf e1+e2 when the
junction temperatures are at T1 and T3 (fig. 6(c)).
 The third law is particularly important from the point of view of reference
junction compensation. The calibration chart of a thermocouple is prepared
taking the cold or reference junction temperature as 0oC.
 But in actual measuring situation, seldom the reference junction temperature
is kept at that temperature, it is normally kept at ambient temperature. The
third law helps us to compute the actual temperature using the calibration
chart. This can be explained from the following example.

45
PRESSURE
46
PRESSURE
 The terms - pressure, specific weight, specific gravity (SG), and
buoyancy
 The difference between atmospheric, absolute, gauge, and differential
pressure values
 Various pressure units in use, i.e., British units versus SI (metric) units
 Various types of pressure measuring devices
 Difference in static, dynamic, and impact pressures
 Laws applied to pressure
 Application considerations

47
PRESSURE
 Pressure is the force exerted by gases and liquids due to their
weight, such as the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the
earth and the pressure containerized liquids exert on the bottom and
walls of a container.
 Pressure units are a measure of the force acting over a specified
area.
 It is most commonly expressed in pounds per square inch (psi),
sometimes pounds per square foot (psf) in English units, or pascals
(Pa or kPa) in metric units.
48
PRESSURE
The liquid in a container has a total weight of 250 lb; the container
has a 3.0 ft2 base. What is the pressure in pounds per square inch?

49
BASIC TERMS
 Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a material, i.e.,
pound (slug) per cubic foot (lb (slug)/ft3) or kilogram per cubic
meter (kg/m3).
 Specific weight is defined as the weight per unit volume of a
material, i.e., pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3) or newton per cubic
meter (N/m3).

50
BASIC TERMS
 Specific gravity of a liquid or solid is a dimensionless value since
it is a ratio of two measurements in the same unit. It is defined as
the density of a material divided by the density of water or it can be
defined as the specific weight of the material divided by the
specific weight of water at a specified temperature.

51
PRESSURE

52
BASIC TERMS
 Static pressure is the pressure of
fluids or gases that are stationary
or not in motion. Point A is
considered as static pressure
although the fluid above it is
flowing.

53
BASIC TERMS
 Dynamic pressure is the pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it
impacts on a surface or an object due to its motion or flow.
 Impact pressure (total pressure) is the sum of the static and
dynamic pressures on a surface or object.

54
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
 Total vacuum–which is zero pressure or lack of pressure, as would be
experienced in outer space.
 Vacuum is a pressure measurement made between total vacuum and
normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
 Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the earth’s surface due to the
weight of the gases in the earth’s atmosphere and is normally expressed
at sea level as 14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa. It is however, dependent on
atmospheric conditions. The pressure decreases above sea level and at
an elevation of 5000 ft drops to about 12.2 psi (84.122 kPa).

55
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
 Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect to a
vacuum and is expressed in pounds per square inch absolute (psia).
 Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with respect to
atmospheric pressure and is normally expressed in pounds per
square inch gauge (psig).
 Differential pressure is the pressure measured with respect to
another pressure and is expressed as the difference between the two
values.

56
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

57
PRESSURE FORMULAS
 Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure in a liquid. The pressure increases
as the depth in a liquid increases. This increase is due to the weight of
the fluid above the measurement point. The pressure is given by
p = δh
where p = pressure in pounds per unit area or pascals
δ = the specific weight (lb/ft3 in English units or N/m3 in SI units)
h = distance from the surface in compatible units (ft, in, cm, m, and so
on)

58
PROBLEM 1
What is the gauge pressure in (a) kilopascals and (b) newtons per
square centimeter at a distance 1 m below the surface in water?

59
PROBLEM 2
 What is the specific gravity of mercury if the specific weight of
mercury is 846.3 lb/ft3?

60
PRESSURE FORMULAS
 Head is sometimes used as a measure of pressure. It is the pressure
in terms of a column of a particular fluid, i.e., a head of 1 ft of
water is the pressure that would be exerted by a 1 ft tall column of
water, that is, 62.4 psfg, or the pressure exerted by 1 ft head of
glycerin would be 78.6 psfg.

61
PROBLEM 3
 What is the pressure at the base of a water tower which has 50 ft of
head?

62
PRESSURE FORMULAS
 The hydrostatic paradox states that the pressure at a given depth in a
liquid is independent of the shape of the container or the volume of
liquid contained. The pressure value is a result of the depth and density.
 Buoyancy is the upward force exerted on an object immersed or
floating in a liquid. The weight is less than it is in air due to the weight
of the displaced fluid.
 The upward force on the object causing the weight loss is called the
buoyant force and is given by

63
PROBLEM 4
 What is the buoyant force on a wooden cube with 3-ft sides floating
in water, if the block is half submerged?

64
PROBLEM 5
 What is the apparent weight of a 3-m 3 block of steel totally
immersed in glycerin?

65
PRESSURE FORMULAS
 Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied to an enclosed liquid
(or gas) is transmitted to all parts of the fluid and to the walls of the
container.

66
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
MANOMETERS
 Manometers are good examples of pressure measuring instruments,
though they are not as common as they used to be because of the
development of new, smaller, more rugged, and easier to use
pressure sensors.
 U–tube manometers consist of U-shaped glass tubes partially filled
with a liquid.

67
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
MANOMETERS

68
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
MANOMETERS
 Well manometers are alternatives to inclined manometers for
measuring low pressures using low-density liquids. In the well
manometer, one leg has a much larger diameter than the other leg.

69
PROBLEM 6
 The liquid in a well manometer has a specific weight of 40 lb/ft3.
How far will the liquid rise in the smaller leg, if the pressure in the
larger leg is 1.5 lb/ft2 higher than in the smaller leg?

70
DIAPHRAGMS, CAPSULES,
AND BELLOWS
 Gauges are a major group of pressure sensors that measure
pressure with respect to atmospheric pressure.
 Gauge sensors are usually devices that change their shape when
pressure is applied.
 These devices include diaphragms, capsules, bellows, and
Bourdon tubes.

71
DIAPHRAGMS, CAPSULES,
AND BELLOWS
 A diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film of a material supported
on a rigid frame and as shown.

72
DIAPHRAGMS, CAPSULES,
AND BELLOWS
 A diaphragm consists of a thin layer or film of a material supported
on a rigid frame and as shown.

73
DIAPHRAGMS, CAPSULES,
AND
Pressure canBELLOWS
 be applied to one side of the film for gauge sensing or pressures can
be applied to both sides of the film for differential or absolute pressure sensing.
 A wide range of materials can be used for the sensing film, from rubber to plastic
for low-pressure devices, silicon for medium pressures, to stainless steel for high
pressures.
 When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the film distorts or becomes slightly
spherical. This movement can be sensed using a strain gauge, piezoelectric, or
changes in capacitance techniques (older techniques included magnetic and
carbon pile devices).
 The deformation in the above sensing devices uses transducers to give electrical
signals. Of all these devices the micromachined silicon diaphragm is the most
commonly used industrial pressure sensor for the generation of electrical signals.
74
DIAPHRAGMS, CAPSULES,
AND BELLOWS
 Pressure can be applied to one side of the film for gauge sensing or
pressures can be applied to both sides of the film for differential or
absolute pressure sensing.
 A wide range of materials can be used for the sensing film, from
rubber to plastic for low-pressure devices, silicon for medium
pressures, to stainless steel for high pressures.

75
DIAPHRAGMS, CAPSULES,
AND BELLOWS
 When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, the film distorts or
becomes slightly spherical.
 This movement can be sensed using a strain gauge, piezoelectric, or
changes in capacitance techniques (older techniques included
magnetic and carbon pile devices).
 The deformation in the above sensing devices uses transducers to give
electrical signals.
 Of all these devices the micromachined silicon diaphragm is the most
commonly used industrial pressure sensor for the generation of
electrical signals.
76
DIAPHRAGMS, CAPSULES,
AND BELLOWS
 A silicon diaphragm uses silicon, which is a
semiconductor.
 This allows a strain gauge and amplifier to be
integrated into the top surface of the silicon
structure after the diaphragm was etched from
the back side.
 These devices have built-in temperature-
compensated piezoelectric strain gauge and
amplifiers that give a high output voltage (5 V
FSD [volt full scale reading or deflection]).

77
DIAPHRAGMS, CAPSULES,
AND BELLOWS
 They are very small, accurate (2 percent FSD), reliable, have a good
temperature operating range, are low cost, can withstand high
overloads, have good longevity, and are unaffected by many
chemicals.
 Commercially made devices are available for gauge, differential, and
absolute pressure sensing up to 200 psi (1.5 MPa). This range can be
extended by the use of stainless steel diaphragms to 100,000 psi (700
MPa).

78
DIAPHRAGM

79
BOURDON TUBES
 Bourdon tubes are hollow, cross-sectional beryllium, copper, or
steel tubes, shaped into a three quarter circle.
 They may be rectangular or oval in cross section, but the operating
principle is that the outer edge of the cross section has a larger
surface than the inner portion.
 When pressure is applied, the outer edge has a proportionally larger
total force applied because of its larger surface area, and the
diameter of the circle increases.

80
BOURDON TUBE

81
BOURDON TUBES
 Bourdon tubes can withstand overloads of up to 30 to 40 percent of
their maximum rated load without damage, but if overloaded may
require recalibration.
 The tubes can also be shaped into helical or spiral shapes to
increase their range.
 The Bourdon tube is normally used for measuring positive gauge
pressures, but can also be used to measure negative gauge pressures

82
BOURDON TUBES

83
APPLICATION
CONSIDERATIONS
 When installing pressure sensors, care should be taken to select the
correct pressure sensor for the application.

84
SELECTION
 Pressure-sensing devices are chosen for pressure range, overload requirements,
accuracy, temperature operating range, line-of-sight reading, or electrical
signal, and response time.
 In some applications there are other special requirements. Parameters, such as
hysteresis and stability, should be obtained from the manufacturers’
specifications.
 For most industrial applications reading positive pressures, the Bourdon tube is
a good choice for direct visual readings and the silicon pressure sensor for the
generation of electrical signals.
 Both types of devices have commercially available sensors to measure from a
few pounds per square inch pressure FSD up to 10,000 psi (700 MPa) FSD.
Table 5.3 gives a comparison of the two types of devices.
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SELECTION PROCESS

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INSTALLATION
 The following should be taken into consideration when installing
pressure sensing devices.
1. Distance between sensor and source should be kept to a minimum.
2. Sensors should be connected via valves for ease of replacement.

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INSTALLATION
3. Overrange protection devices should be included at the sensor.
4. To eliminate errors due to trapped gas in sensing liquid pressures,
the sensor should be located below the source.
5. To eliminate errors due to trapped liquid in sensing gas pressures,
the sensor should be located above the source.
6. When measuring pressures in corrosive fluids and gases, an inert
medium is necessary between the sensor and the source or the sensor
must be corrosion resistant.

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INSTALLATION
7. The weight of the liquid in the connection line of a liquid pressure
sensing device located above or below the source will cause errors in
the zero, and a correction must be made by the zero adjustment, or
otherwise compensated for in measurement systems.
8. Resistance and capacitance can be added to electron circuits to
reduce pressure fluctuations and unstable readings.

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INSTALLTION PROCESS

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CALIBRATION
 Pressure-sensing devices are calibrated at the factory. In cases
where a sensor is suspect and needs to be recalibrated, the sensor
can be returned to the factory for recalibration, or it can be
compared to a known reference.
 Low-pressure devices can be calibrated against a liquid manometer.
High-pressure devices can be calibrated with a dead-weight tester.
 In a dead-weight tester the pressure to the device under test is
created by weights on a piston. High pressures can be accurately
reproduced.

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CALIBRATION PROCESS

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