Introduction to Psychology

By
Rabia Umar
MS Clinical Psychology
 Definition
Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and
mental processes.
The field is scientific in terms that psychologists
approach their studies in an orderly and systematic
way in order to obtain objective evidence.
Primary goals of psychology
Primary goals of psychology are to
Describe behavior (What happened?)
Understand and explain behavior (Why did she do
that?)
Predict behavior (What would happen if she did
this?)
Control behavior (What can she do next time to have
a different outcome?)
Psychology’s Rich History
Several schools of thought have helped to shape the field
of psychology into what it is today. These include
Structuralism
Functionalism
Psychoanalysis
Behaviorism
Gestalt psychology
Humanistic psychology
Cognitive psychology
 STRUCTURALISM
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first “psychological”
laboratory in Germany. He is widely viewed as the founder of
psychology.
He presented the theory of
consciousness that seeks to analyze the
elements of mental experiences such as
sensations, mental images, and feelings,
and how these elements combine to form
more complex experiences.
This was done through a process called
introspection (self reports of sensations,
views, feelings, emotions etc).
Wundt’s approach became known as
structuralism.
 Functionalism
William James argued that consciousness
cannot be broken down into elements.
He was concerned with ongoing
conscious experience and the
functions of mental processes.
(utility and purpose of
behavior that has been modified
over years of human existence
(Darwinian theory).
His views gave rise to
another branch of
psychology-functionalism.
 Behaviorism
Behaviourists held the view that only overt
behaviour can be studied scientifically.

They advocated the use of strict

experimental procedures in
psychology.
Supported by B. F.
Skinner, Ivan Pavlov and
John B. Watson

John B. Watson
 Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology –founded by Max Wertheimer
Focused on studying mental
processes and behaviours as a "whole"
rather than trying to separate them
into discrete functions or parts.
Held the view that “the whole
is greater than the sum of its
parts.”
Law of Perceptual
Organization and the law of
closure
 Psychoanalysis
While other theorists tried to explain varying
aspects of conscious experience, Sigmund Freud
argued for the role of unconscious and other
internal processes in human behavior and mental
disorders.
His work formed the foundation
of psychoanalytic theory.
 Humanistic psychology
Humanistic psychologists argued that humans are
not helplessly controlled by unconscious or
environmental forces.
We have free will, goals,
aspirations, and other positive
motives which should be
studied.
Influenced by Carl Rogers.
 Cognitive psychology
Studies how we process information through
perception, attention, language, memory and
thinking.
How they influence thoughts, feelings, behaviors
and ability to operate in world.
Past experiences make the
difference between individual’s
perception.
-Can you give me an example
to illustrate this?
How does psychology differ from other fields?
 The field of psychology is similar to other sciences by
means of using similar methods when conducting
research, such as empirical studies and
the scientific method.
 However, psychology differs from other sciences
because psychologists focus on mental processes and
behaviors.
Example
Psychology and Physical Sciences
Physical sciences investigate the nature of physical
stimuli apart from their relation to an individual. But
psychology studies the nature of the interaction
between an individual with physical stimuli.
Fields/areas within psychology
 Where Psychologists work

Business and
government
13%

Independent
practice
15%

Universities
Colleges and
research settings
48%
Hospitals clinics
and human
services
24%
 Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychologists make up the single largest
specialty area in psychology. Clinicians are
psychologists who assess, diagnose and treat mental
illnesses. They frequently work in mental health
centers, private or group practices or hospitals.
Clinical psychologists usually perform a broad range
of tasks on a daily basis such as interviewing patients,
conducting assessments, giving diagnostic tests and
performing psychotherapy.
 Counseling Psychology
Counseling psychologists make up another large
specialty area in psychology. These professionals
perform many of the same tasks that clinical
psychologists do, but counseling psychologists tend to
work with clients suffering from less severe forms of
mental illness.
Counseling psychology focuses on providing
therapeutic treatments to clients who experience
emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-
related, developmental and organizational concerns.
 Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychologists (or research
psychologists) conduct research on the behavior of
humans and animals. They often work at universities,
private research centers, government agencies, and
nonprofit organizations. Some major areas of research
include substance abuse, genetics, neuroscience,
motivation, and cognitive processes.
 Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychology is a branch
of psychology which relates to the law. The main part
of forensic psychology is working with the criminal
justice system. Forensic psychology is the use
of psychological practices and principles and
applying them
Forensic psychologists will often conduct their own
research and may study criminals and their crimes to
figure out what traits certain types of criminals have,
which may involve interviewing criminals along with
their loved ones and victims to the legal system.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Industrial-organizational psychology focuses on
workplace behavior and is one of the fastest-growing
specialty areas in psychology. Industrial and
organizational psychologists tries to understand and
measure human behavior to improve employees
satisfaction in their work, employers ability to select
and promote the best people, and to generally make
the workplace better for the men and women who
work there.
School Psychology
School psychologists work within the educational system
to help children with emotional, social and academic
issues.
The goal of school psychology is to collaborate with
parents, teachers, and students to promote a healthy
learning environment that focuses on the needs of
children.
 School psychologists work with individual students and
groups of students to deal with behavioral problems,
academic difficulties and other issues. They also work
with teachers and parents to develop techniques to deal
with home and classroom behavior. 
Social Psychology
Social psychologists studies human behavior within a
social context.
Their main focus is to determine how people's
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the
actual, imagined or implied presence of others.
These professionals often work in areas such as market
research, organizational management and other
applied areas.
Methods of psychology
 Case History
 Case history is an in-depth study of single person.
 In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject’s life and
history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes for behavior.
 Case studies can be compared and contrasted to further
analyze the data, however the focus is always to analyze the
behaviors, feelings, thoughts etc of one person.
 Case studies were developed from the idea of single cases
being tried in a court of law. Sigmund Freud was the first in
his field to use case studies to learn more about his patients.
 Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and
it is difficult to generalize results on larger population.
Naturalistic observation
 Naturalistic observation is a method of observation
commonly used by psychologists and social scientists.
 It involves observation of subjects in their natural
habitats.
 Researchers take great care in avoiding interferences
with the behavior they are observing.
 It is objective study of events as they occur naturally
without intervention.
Survey method
 Survey is a method of scientific investigation in which
a large sample of people answer questions about their
attitude or behavior.
 Standardized surveys provide data with little to no
errors. They are cost effective and efficient as a large
group of people can be surveyed in a short period of
time. 
Experimental method
 Experimental method involves manipulating one
variable to determine if changes in one variable cause
changes in another variable.
 This method relies on controlled methods and
manipulation of variables to test the hypothesis.
 An experiment is a study of cause and effect and it is
different from non-experimental methods in a way that
it involves purposeful manipulation of one variable ,
while trying to keep all other variables constants.
 The cause and effect of a particular problem can be
studied through an experiment
Parts of simple experiment
Independent variable: is the variable that is controlled
and manipulated by the experimenter.
Dependent variable: is the variable that is measured by
the experimenter.
Experimental group: is a test sample or the group that
receives an experimental procedure. This group is
exposed to changes in the independent variable being
tested.
Control group is a group separated from the rest of
the experiment such that the independent variable
being tested cannot influence the results.
CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT
Definition
Character
 The distinctive qualities that describe how a person
thinks, feels, and behaves.
 It can be defined as the collection of core values
possessed by an individual that leads to moral
commitment and action.
 The outward expression of your values
What are values?
Definition
Values are the accepted principles or standards of a
group or individual.
In psychology Value refers to the relative importance
that an individual places on an item, idea, person, etc.
that is part of their life. These feelings are unique to
the individual.
Standards that are important to an individual.
Describe someone with good
character
Traits of good character
 Trustworthiness
 Respect
 Responsibility
 Fairness
 Caring
Trustworthiness
Definition
 Trustworthiness is believing that the person who is
trusted will do what is expected.
 She/he is honest, loyal,
reliable, responsible, etc
Respect
Definition
 Respect is an attitude that develops through mature
and mutually enriching interpersonal relationships. 
 Moreover, respect is the attitude of accepting others’
differences.
Responsibility
Definition
 Responsibility is being accountable for one's actions
and to know and follow various rules, laws, and
conduct codes. 
 Self control and think before you act.
Fairness
Definition
 Impartiality and honesty, free from self-interest,
prejudice or favoritism.
Caring
Definition
 A person who is concerned about others and shows
kindness.
 Caring people are polite, generous, affectionate,
tolerant, understanding, loving, and forgiving.
 They go out of their way to make others feel special, to
make them happy or feel more confident in
themselves.
How to develop good character
1. Recognize what good character is
2. Evaluate your own character
3. Identify what you would like to change
4. Plan how would you like to do it
 1. Recognize what good character is
 You must value good character and believe it is
important
 You must have enough respect for yourself and value
yourself enough to want good character traits
2. Evaluate your own character
 Trustworthiness
 Respect
 Responsibility
 Fairness
 Caring
Rate yourself on a scale of 5.
 3. Identify what you would like to change

 Identify what character traits you’d like to improve.

 4. Plan how you are going to improve your character
 For each trait you picked, think of two things you can
do to improve or develop that trait.
 Write a paragraph or more in your notes about one of
the chosen trait
 Planning to meet this goal
 Why it is important?
WHAT IS SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT?
Social Development means acquisition of the ability to
behave in accordance with social expectations.
Becoming socialized involves three processes which,
although they are separate and distinct, are so closely
interrelated that failure in any 0ne of them will lower
the individual’s level of socialization.
PROCESSES IN SOCIALIZATION
LEARNING TO BEHAVE IN SOCIALLY APPROVED
BY WAYS
PLAYING APPROVED SOCIAL ROLES
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL ATTITUDES
 LEARNING TO BEHAVE IN SOCIALLY
APPROVED BY WAYS
Every social group has its standards of what is
approved behavior for its members.
To become socialized, children must not only know
what this approved behavior is, but they must also
model their own behavior along the approved lines.
PLAYING APPROVED SOCIAL ROLES
Every social group has its own patterns of customary
behavior that are carefully defined and are expected by
members of the group
There are approved roles, for example, for parents and
children and for teachers and pupils.
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL ATTITUDES
To become socialized, children must like people and
social activities.
If they do, they will make good social adjustments and
be accepted as members of the social group with
which they are identified.
 SOCIAL AND NONSOCIAL PEOPLE
Social – people are those whose behavior reflects
success in the three processes of socialization. As a
result, they fit into the group with which they are
identified and are accepted as group members.
Gregarious – people are social people who crave the
presence of others and are lonely when by themselves.
They are satisfied merely to be with others, regardless
of the nature of contact.
 SOCIAL AND NONSOCIAL PEOPLE
Nonsocial – people are those whose behavior does
not reflect success in the three processes that
characterize a social person.
Unsocial – people are nonsocial people who are
ignorant of what the social group expects and, as a
result, behave in a manner that falls short of social
expectations. Because of this, they are not accepted by
the group and are forced to spent to much of their
time in solitude.
 SOCIAL AND NONSOCIAL PEOPLE
Antisocial – people are nonsocial people who know
what are the group expects but, because of
antagonistic attitudes toward people, they violate the
group mores. As a result, they are neglected or rejected
by the group.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO VARIATIONS IN
SOCIAL GROUP INFLUENCES
 ACCEPTABILITY TO THE GROUP
 SECURITY OF STATUS
 TYPE OF GROUP
 DIFFERENT MEMBERS OF THE GROUP
 PERSONALITY
 AFFILLIATION MOTIVE
 IMPORTANCE OF EARLY SOCIAL
EXPERIENCES
Early social experiences largely determine what sort of
adults children will become.
Predominantly happy experiences encourage the child
to see more such experiences and to become a social
person.
Early social experiences may be with family members
or with people outside the home.
 BEGINNING OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR
During the first month or two of life, they merely
respond to stimuli in their environment, regardless of
whether these stimuli come from people or objects.
They do not, for example, distinguish clearly between
people’s voices and other noises.
Socialization in the form of gregarious behavior
begins around third month, when babies can
distinguish between people and objects in their
environment and when they respond differently to
them.
 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD
From 2 to 6 years, children learn how to make social
contacts and how to get along with people outside the
home, especially children of their own age.
They learn to adapt themselves to others and how to
cooperate in play activities. - Early childhood is often
called the “pregang age.”
 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD
RELATIONS WITH ADULTS: Young children spend
less time with adults and derive less enjoyment from
being with theme. At the same time, their interest in
playmates of their own age increases and the
enjoyment from being with them gets stronger.
RELATIONS WITH OTHER CHILDREN: before the age
of 2 years, young children engage in solitary or parallel
play. Their contacts consist primarily of imitating or
watching one another or to attempting to take one
another’s toys.
 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN LATE
CHILDHOOD
Upon beginning schools, children enter the “gang age”
–an age when social consciousness develops rapidly.
Children become members of peer group which will
gradually replace the family in its influences over their
attitudes and behavior.
 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT AT PUBERTY
With the beginning of puberty comes a change in
social attitudes, a decline in interest in group
activities, and tendency to prefer solitude.
As puberty progresses and the rate of puberty changes
speeds up, social attitudes and behavior become
increasingly antisocial.
Thanks