4.

3
Uniform or Localized Loss of Thickness
4.3.1 Galvanic Corrosion
4.3.2 Atmospheric Corrosion
4.3.3 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
4.3.4 Cooling Water Corrosion
4.3.5 Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion
4.3.6 CO2 Corrosion
4.3.7 Flue-Gas Dew-Point Corrosion
4.3.8 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)
4.3.9 Soil Corrosion
4.3.10 Caustic Corrosion
4.3.11 De-alloying
4.3.12 Graphitic Corrosion
4.3.1 GALVANIC CORROSION
4.3.1.1 Description of Damage
A form of corrosion that can occur at the junction of dissimilar metals
when they are joined together in a suitable electrolyte such as
aqueous environment or soil containing moisture.

4.3.1.2 Affected Materials

All metals with the exception of most noble metals.
4.3.1.3 Critical Factors
Three conditions must be met:
  Presence of an electrolyte, a fluid that can conduct a current.
Moisture or a separate water phase is usually required for the
solution to have enough conductivity.
 Two different materials or alloys known as the anode and the
cathode, in contact with an electrolyte.
  An electrical connection must exist between the anode and the
cathode.

The more noble material (cathode) is protected by sacrificial

corrosion of the more active material (anode).
4.3.1.4 Affected Units or Equipment
a)Galvanic corrosion can occur in any unit where there is a
conductive fluid and alloys are coupled.
Heat exchangers are susceptible if the tube material is
different from the tubesheet and/or baffles, particularly if salt
water cooling is utilized.

 b)Buried pipelines, electrical transmission support towers

and ship hulls are typical locations for galvanic corrosion.
CASE STUDY
4.3.1.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage

a) The more active material can suffer generalized loss in

thickness or may have the appearance of a crevice, groove or
pitting corrosion, depending on the driving force, conductivity
and relative anodic/cathodic areas ratio.
b) Corrosion of the anode may be significantly higher
immediately adjacent to the connection to the cathode,
depending on solution conductivity.
4.3.1.6 Prevention / Mitigation
The best method for prevention/mitigation is through good
design, Differing alloys should not be in intimate contact in
conductive environments unless the anode/cathode surface area
ratio is favorable,
Coatings can be helpful, but the more noble material should be
coated, For piping, specially designed electric insulating bolt sleeves
and gaskets can eliminate the electrical connection, Galvanic
corrosion is the principle used in galvanized steel, where the Zn
corrodes preferentially to protect the underlying CS.
4.3.1.7 Inspection and Monitoring
Visual inspection and UT thickness gauging are
very effective methods for detecting galvanic
corrosion. The damage may sometimes be hidden
underneath a bolt or rivet head.
4.3.2 Atmospheric Corrosion
4.3.2 Atmospheric Corrosion
4.3.2.1 Description of Damage
A form of corrosion that occurs from moisture associated with
atmospheric conditions. Marine environments and moist
polluted industrial environments with airborne contaminants
are most severe. Dry rural environments cause very little
corrosion.

4.3.2.2 Affected Materials

Carbon steel, low alloy steels and copper alloyed aluminum.
4.3.2.3 Critical Factors
a) Critical factors include the following:
 Physical location (industrial, marine, rural);
 Moisture (humidity), particularly designs that trap
moisture or when present in a cooling tower mist;
 Temperature;
 Presence of salts, sulfur compounds and dirt.
4.3.2.4 Affected Units or Equipment
a) Piping and equipment with operating temperatures
sufficiently low to allow moisture to be present.
b) A paint or coating system in poor condition.
c) Equipment may be susceptible if cycled between ambient and
higher or lower operating temperatures.
d) Equipment shut down or idled for prolonged periods unless
properly mothballed.
4.3.2.5 Appearance
a)The attack will be general or localized, depending upon whether
or not the moisture is trapped.
b) If there is no coating or if there is a coating failure, corrosion or
loss in thickness can be general.
c) Localized coating failures will tend to promote corrosion.
4.3.2.6 Prevention / Mitigation
 Surface preparation and proper coating
application are critical for long-term protection in
corrosive environments.
4.3.2.7 Inspection and Monitoring
VT and UT are techniques that can be used.
4.3.3 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
4.3.3.1 Description of Damage
Corrosion of piping, pressure vessels and structural
components resulting from water trapped under
insulation or fireproofing.
4.3.3.2 Affected Materials
Carbon steel, low alloy steels, 300 Series SS and duplex
stainless steels.
4.3.2.3 Critical Factors
a) Design of insulation system, insulation type, temperature,
environment (humidity, rainfall and chlorides from marine
environment, industrial environments containing high SO2)
are critical factors.
b) Poor design and/or installations that allow water to
become trapped will increase CUI.
c) Corrosion rates increase with increasing metal temperature
up to the point where the water evaporates quickly.
4.3.3.4 Affected Materials
a) Carbon and low alloy steels are subject to pitting
and loss in thickness.
b) 300 Series SS, 400 Series SS and duplex SS are
subject to pitting and localized corrosion.
c) 300 Series SS are also subject to Stress Corrosion
Cracking (SCC) if chlorides are present, while the duplex
SS are less susceptible.
4.3.3.5 Affected Units or Equipment
a) Location Issues
Common areas of concern in process units are higher
moisture areas such as those areas down-wind from
cooling towers, near steam vents, deluge systems, acid
vapors, or near supplemental cooling with water spray.
4.3.3.6 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
a) CUI damage often appears as loose, flaky scale covering
the corroded component. Damage may be highly localized .

b) the corrosion can appear to be carbuncle type pitting

(usually found under a failed paint/coating system).

c) For 300 Series SS, specifically in older calcium silicate

insulation (known to contain chlorides), localized
pitting and chloride stress corrosion cracking can occur.
 API RP-571
Appearance of Damage
CUI of CS level bridle
 API RP-571
Appearance of Damage
Profile RT of the level bridle
4.3.3.7 Prevention / Mitigation

 Mitigation is best achieved by using appropriate

paints/coatings and maintaining the insulation/sealing/vapor

barriers to prevent moisture ingress.

 High quality coatings, properly applied, can provide long

term protection.
Inspection and Monitoring
An inspection plan for corrosion under insulation should be a
structured and systematic approach starting with prediction/analysis,
then looking at the more invasive procedures.
 The inspection plan should consider operating temperature; type and
age/condition of coating; and type and age/condition of insulation
material.
Additional prioritization can be added from a physical inspection of
the equipment, looking for evidence of insulation, mastic and/or
sealant damage, signs of water penetration and rust in gravity drain
areas around the equipment.
 Partial and/or full stripping of insulation for visual
examination.
 UT for thickness verification.
 Real-time profile x-ray (for small bore piping).
 Neutron backscatter for identifying wet insulation.
 Deep penetrating eddy-current inspection.
 IR thermography looking for wet insulation and/or damaged
and missing insulation under the jacket.
 Guided wave UT.
4.3.4 Cooling water corrosion
4.3.4.1 Description of Damage
General or localized corrosion of carbon steels and other metals
caused by dissolved salts, gases, organics.
4.3. 4.2 Affected Materials
Carbon steel, all grades of stainless steel, copper, aluminum,
titanium and Ni base alloys.
 4.3.4.3 Critical Factors
a) Fluid temperature, type of water (fresh, brackish, salt
water) and the type of cooling system (once-through,
open circulating, closed circulating), oxygen content (high
O2), and fluid velocities (<3fps) are critical factors.

4.3.4.4 Affected Units or Equipment

Cooling water corrosion is a concern with water-cooled
heat exchangers and cooling towers in all applications
across all industries.
4.3.4.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
Cooling water corrosion can result in many different forms of
damage including general corrosion, pitting corrosion,
Microbiologically Induced corrosion, stress corrosion
cracking and fouling & Crevice corrosion.%
 API RP-571
Appearance of Damage
Cooling water corrosion on the I.D. of a CS heat exchanger tube operating at 86oF
(30oC).
4.3.4.6 Prevention / Mitigation
a) Cooling water corrosion (and fouling) can be prevented by proper design,
operation and chemical treatment of cooling water systems.
b) Design for process side inlet temperatures below 140°F (60°C).
c) Minimum and maximum water velocities must maintained.
d) The metallurgy of heat exchanger components may need to be upgraded
for improved resistance, especially in waters with high chloride content, low
velocity & high process temperatures.
e) Periodic mechanical cleaning of tube ID’s and OD’s should be performed
in order to maintain clean heat transfer surfaces.
f) With very few exceptions, cooling water should be on the tube side to
minimize stagnant areas.
 Inspection and Monitoring
a) Cooling water should be monitored for variables that affect
corrosion and fouling including, pH,oxygen content, cycles of
concentration, biocide residual, biological activity, cooling water
outlet temperatures.
b) Periodic calculation of U-factors (heat exchanger performance
measurement) will provide information on scaling and fouling.
c) Ultrasonic flow meters can be used to check the velocity of
water in the tubes.
d) EC or IRIS inspection of tubes.
e) Splitting representative tubes.
 4.3.5 Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion
4.3.5.1 Description of Damage
General corrosion and pitting in the boiler system and
condensate return piping.
4.3.5.2 Affected Materials
Primarily carbon steel, some low alloy steel, some 300
Series SS and copper based alloys.
4.3.5.3 Critical Factors
a) Corrosion in boiler feedwater and condensate return
systems is usually the result of dissolved gases, oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
b) Critical factors are the concentration of dissolved gas
(oxygen and carbon dioxide), pH, temperature, quality
of the feedwater and the specific feedwater treating
system.
4.3.5.4 Affected Units or Equipment
Corrosion can occur in the external treatment system,
deaerating equipment, feedwater lines, pumps, stage
heaters and economizers as well as the steam
generation system on both the water and fire sides and
the condensate return system.
4.3.5.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
Corrosion from oxygen tends to be a pitting type damage
and can show up anywhere in the system even if only very
small quantities break through the scavenging treatment.

 Oxygen is particularly aggressive in equipment such as

closed heaters and economizers where there is a rapid water
temperature rise.
4.3.5.6 Prevention/Mitigation
a) Oxygen scavenging treatments typically include catalyzed
sodium sulfite or hydrazine depending on the system pressure
level along with proper mechanical deareator operation.
A residual of the oxygen scavenger is carried into the steam
generation system to handle any oxygen ingress past the
deaerator.
b) If the scale/deposit control/magnetite maintenance treatment
scheme does not minimize carbon dioxide in the condensate return
system, an amine inhibitor treatment might be required.
4.3.5.7 Inspection and Monitoring
a) Water analysis is the common monitoring tool used to assure
that the various treatment systems are performing in a satisfactory
manner. Parameters which can be monitored for signs of upset
include the pH, conductivity, chlorine or residual biocide, and total
dissolved solids to check for leaks in the form of organic
compounds.
b) There are no proactive inspection methods other than developing
an appropriate program when problems such as a ruptured boiler
tube or condensate leaks are recognized in the various parts of
complex boiler water and condensate systems.

c) Deaerator cracking problems can be evaluated off-line at

shutdowns by utilizing properly applied wet fluorescence magnetic
particle inspection.
4.3.6 CO2 Corrosion
4.3.6.1 Description of Damage
Carbon dioxide (CO2) corrosion results when CO2 dissolves in water to
form carbonic acid (H2CO3). The acid may lower the pH and sufficient
quantities may promote general corrosion and/or pitting corrosion of
carbon steel.

4.3.5.2 Affected Materials

Carbon steel and low alloy steels.
 4.3.6.3 Critical Factors
a) The partial pressure of CO2, pH and temperature are critical factors.
b) Increasing partial pressures of CO2 result in lower pH condensate and higher
rates of corrosion.
c) Corrosion occurs in the liquid phase where CO2 condenses from the vapor
phase.
d) Increasing temperatures increase corrosion rate up to the point where CO2
is vaporized.
e) Increasing the level of chromium in steels offers no major improvement in
resistance until a minimum of 12% is reached.
 4.3.6.4 Affected Units or Equipment

Boiler feed water and condensate systems in all units are affected.
Effluent gas streams of the shift converters in hydrogen plants can
be affected. Corrosion usually occurs when the effluent stream drops
below the dew point, approximately 300°F (149°C). Corrosion rates as
high as 1000 mpy have been observed.
Overhead systems of regenerators in CO2 removal plants.
4.3.6.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
a) Localized thinning and/or pitting corrosion of carbon steel
(Figure 4-85, Figure 4-86 and Figure 4-87).

b) Carbon steel may suffer deep pitting and grooving in areas

of turbulence (Figure 4-88).

c) Corrosion generally occurs in areas of turbulence and

impingement and sometimes at the root of piping welds.
4.3.6.6 Prevention/Mitigation
 Corrosion inhibitors can reduce corrosion in steam condensate
systems. Vapor phase inhibitors may be required to protect against
condensing vapors.
 Increasing condensate pH above 6 can reduce corrosion in steam
condensate systems.
 The 300 Series SS are highly resistant to corrosion in most
applications.
 400 Series SS and duplex SS are also resistant.
 Steam condensate systems that experience CO2 corrosion are
usually the result of operating problems.
4.3.6.7 Inspection and Monitoring
a) VT, UT and RT inspection techniques should focus on
general and local loss in thickness where water wetting is
anticipated.
b) Preferential corrosion of weld seams may require angle probe
UT or RT.
c) Monitor water analyses (pH, Fe, etc.) to determine changes in
operating conditions.
CASE STUDY
4.3.7 Flue-Gas Dew-Point Corrosion
4.3.7.1 Description of Damage
a) Sulfur and chlorine species in fuel will form sulfur dioxide, sulfur
trioxide and hydrogen chloride within the combustion products.
b) At low enough temperatures, these gases and the water vapor in
the flue gas will condense to form sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid and
hydrochloric acid which can lead to severe corrosion.
4.3.7.2 Affected Materials
Carbon steel, low alloy steels and 300 Series SS.
4.3.7.3 Critical Factors
a) The concentration of contaminants (sulfur and chlorides) in the
fuel and the operating temperature of flue gas metal surfaces
determine the likelihood and severity of corrosion.
b) Since all fuels contain some amount of sulfur, sulfuric and
sulfurous acid dew point corrosion can occur if the metal
temperatures are below the dew point.
c) The dew point of sulfuric acid depends on the concentration of
sulfur trioxide in the flue gas, but is typically about 280°F (138°C).
d) Similarly, the dewpoint of hydrochloric acid depends on the
concentration of hydrogen chloride. It is typically about 130°F (54°C).
4.3.7.4 Affected Units or Equipment
All fired process heaters and boilers that burn fuels
containing sulfur have the potential for sulfuric acid dew point
corrosion in the economizer sections and in the stacks.
 Heat-Recovery Steam Generators (HRSG’s) that have 300
Series SS feed water heaters may suffer chloride-induced stress
corrosion cracking from the gas side (OD) when the
temperature of the inlet water is below the dewpoint of
hydrochloric acid.
4.3.7.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
a) Sulfuric acid corrosion on economizers or other carbon
steel or low alloy steel components will have
general wastage often with broad, shallow pits
depending on the way the sulfuric acid condenses.
b) For the 300 Series SS feed water heaters in HRSG’s,
stress corrosion cracking will have surface breaking
cracks and the general appearance will be somewhat
crazed.
4.3.7.6 Prevention/Mitigation
 Maintain the metallic surfaces at the back end of the boilers and
fired heaters above the temperature of sulfuric acid dew point
corrosion.

 For HRSG’s, avoid the use of 300 Series SS in the feed water heaters
if the environment is likely to contain chlorides.

 Similar damage occurs in oil-fired boilers when the units are water-
washed to remove ash if the final rinse does not neutralize the acid
salts. Sodium carbonate should be added to the final rinse as a basic
solution to neutralize the acidic ash constituents.
4.3.7.7 Inspection and Monitoring
a) Wall-thickness measurements by UT methods will
monitor the wastage in economizer tubes.
b) Stress corrosion cracking of 300 Series SS can be
found using VT and PT inspection.
4.3.8 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)
4.3.8.1 Description of Damage
A form of corrosion caused by living organisms such as bacteria, algae
or fungi. It is often associated with the presence of tubercles or slimy
organic substances.
4.3.8.2 Affected Materials
Most common materials of construction including carbon and low
alloy steels, 300 Series SS and 400 Series SS, aluminum, copper and
some nickel base alloys.
4.3.8.3 Critical Factors
 MIC is usually found in aqueous environments or services where water
is always or sometimes present, especially where stagnant or low-flow.
Because there are several types, organisms can survive and grow under
severe conditions including lack of oxygen, pH range of 0 to 12, and
temperatures from 0°F to 235°F (–17°C to 113°C).
 Different organisms thrive on different nutrients including inorganic
substances (e.g., sulfur, ammonia, H2S) and inorganic substances (e.g.,
hydrocarbons, organic acids).
 In-leakage of process contaminants such as hydrocarbons or H2S may
lead to a massive increase in biofouling and corrosion.
4.3.8.4 Affected Units or Equipment
MIC is most often found in heat exchangers, bottom water of
storage tanks, piping with stagnant or low flow, and piping in
contact with some soils.
 MIC is also found in equipment where the hydrotest water has
not been removed or equipment has been left outside and
unprotected.
Product storage tanks and water cooled heat exchangers in any
unit where cooling water is not properly treated can be affected.
 Fire water systems can be affected.
4.3.8.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
a) MIC corrosion is usually observed as localized pitting under
deposits or tubercles that shield the organisms.
b) Damage is often characterized by cup-shaped pits within pits
in carbon steel or subsurface cavities in stainless steel (Figure 4-
89 through Figure 4-95).
4.3.8.6 Prevention/Mitigation

 Microbes require water to thrive. Systems that contain water (cooling

water, storage tanks, etc.) should be treated with biocides such as

chlorine, bromine, ozone, ultraviolet light or proprietary compounds.

 Proper application of biocides will control but not eliminate microbes

so that continued treatment is necessary.

 Maintain flow velocities above minimum levels. Minimize low flow or

stagnant zones.

 Systems that are not designed or intended for water containment

should be kept clean and dry.

Empty hydrotest water as soon as possible. Blow dry and

prevent moisture intrusion.

Wrapping and cathodically protecting underground structures

have been effective in preventing MIC.

Effective mitigation of established organisms requires complete

removal of deposits and organisms using a combination of

pigging, blasting, chemical cleaning and biocide treatment.

Add biocides to water phase in storage tanks.

Maintain coatings on the interior of storage tanks.

4.3.8.7 Inspection and Monitoring
 In cooling water systems, effectiveness of treatment is monitored by
measuring biocide residual, microbe counts and visual appearance.

Special probes have been designed to monitor for evidence of fouling which
may precede or coincide with MIC damage.

 An increase in the loss of duty of a heat exchanger may be indicative of

fouling and potential MIC damage.

 Foul smelling water may be a sign of trouble.

4.3.9 Soil Corrosion
4.3.9.1 Description of Damage
The deterioration of metals exposed to soils is referred to
as soil corrosion.
4.3.9.2 Affected Materials
Carbon steel, cast iron and ductile iron.
4.3.9.3 Critical Factors
a) The severity of soil corrosion is determined by many factors
including operating temperature, moisture and oxygen availability,
soil resistivity (soil condition and characteristics), soil type (water
drainage), and homogeneity (variation in soil type), cathodic
protection, stray current drainage, coating type, age, and condition.
b) A number of characteristics must be combined to estimate
the corrosion in particular soil as outlined in ASTM STP 741 as
well as API RP 580 and API RPl 581.
c) Soil resistivity is frequently used to estimate soil corrosivity,
mainly because it is easy to measure.
Soil resistivity is related to soil moisture content and dissolved
electrolytes in the soil water.
d) Soils having high moisture content, high dissolved salt
concentrations, and high acidity are usually the most corrosive.
e) Soil-to-air interface areas are often much more susceptible to
corrosion than the rest of the structure because of moisture and
oxygen availability (Figure 4-96).
f) Corrosion rates increase with increasing metal temperature.
g) Other factors that affect soil corrosion include galvanic
corrosion, dissimilar soils, stray currents, differential aeration
corrosion cells, and microbiologically induced corrosion.
4 Affected Units or Equipment
Underground piping and equipment as well as buried tanks and
the bottoms of above ground storage tanks.
4.3.9.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
a) Soil corrosion appears as external thinning with localized losses
due to pitting. The severity of corrosion depends on the local soil
conditions and changes in the immediate environment along the
equipment metal surface.
b) Poor condition of a protective coating is a tell tale sign of
potential corrosion damage.
4.3.9.7 Inspection and Monitoring
The most common method used for monitoring underground
structures is measuring the structure to soil potential using
dedicated reference electrodes near the structure (corrected for IR
drop error).
Cathodic protection should be performed and monitored in
accordance with NACE RP 0169.
4.3.9.6 Prevention / Mitigation
Soil corrosion of carbon steel can be minimized through the use of
special backfill, coatings and cathodic protection.

The most effective protection is a combination of a corrosion

resistant coating and a cathodic protection system.
4.3.10 Caustic Corrosion
4.3.10.1 Description of Damage
 Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic or
alkaline salts that usually occurs under evaporative or high
heat transfer conditions. However, general corrosion can
also occur depending on alkali or caustic solution strength.
4.3.10.2 Affected Materials
Primarily carbon steel, low alloy steels and 300 Series SS.
4.3.10.3 Critical Factors
Major contributing factors are the presence of caustic
(NaOH or KOH). The following are sources of caustic:
 Caustic is sometimes added to process streams for
neutralization or as a reactant, it is sometimes
intentionally added to boiler feedwater at low
concentrations or may enter inadvertently during
regeneration of demineralizers, etc.
4.3.10.4 Affected Units or Equipment
a)Caustic corrosion is most often associated with boilers and steam
generating equipment including heat exchangers.
b)Similar concentrating effects of caustic may occur where caustic is
added to crude unit charge.
 c) Accelerated localized corrosion can occur in preheat exchangers,
furnace tubes and transfer lines, unless the caustic is effectively mixed in
the oil stream.
 d)Units that use caustic for removing sulfur compounds from product
streams.
4.3.10.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
 Typically characterized by localized metal loss which may appear
as grooves in a boiler tube or locally thinned areas under
insulating deposits
 Deposits may fill corroded depressions and mask damage
below. Probing suspect areas with a sharp instrument may be
required.
 gouging may result along a waterline where corrosives
concentrate. In vertical tubes, this may appear as a circumferential
groove.
4.3.10.6 Prevention / Mitigation
 a) In steam generating equipment, caustic corrosion is best
prevented through proper design. Damage can be minimized by
reducing the amount of free caustic, by ensuring adequate water
flooding and water flow, by ensuring proper burner management to
minimize hot spots on heater tubes, and by minimizing the ingress
of alkaline producing salts into condensers.
b) In process equipment, caustic injection facilities should be
designed to allow proper mixing and dilution of caustic in order to
avoid the concentration of caustic on hot metal surfaces.
4.3.10.7 Inspection and Monitoring
a) For process equipment, UT thickness gauging is useful
to detect and monitor general corrosion due to caustic.
However, localized losses due to caustic corrosion may be
difficult to locate.
b) Injection points should be inspected in accordance with
API 570.
c) UT scans and radiography can be used.
d) Steam generation equipment may require visual
inspection with the use a boroscope.
4.3.11 Dealloying
4.3.8.1 Description of Damage
a) Dealloying is a selective corrosion mechanism in which one or more
constituents of an alloy are preferentially attacked leaving a lower
density (dealloyed) often porous structure.
b) Component failure may occur suddenly and unexpectedly because
mechanical properties of the dealloyed material are significantly
degraded.
4.3.11.2 Affected Materials

 Copper alloys (brass, bronze, tin) as well as Alloy 400/ cast iron.
4.3.11.3 Critical Factors
a) Factors which influence dealloying include the composition of the
alloy and exposure conditions including temperature, degree of
aeration, pH and exposure time.
b) Dealloying occurs with several different alloys but is usually limited to
very specific alloy-environment combinations.
c) Exact conditions under which dealloying occurs are often hard to
define and damage may occur progressively over many years in service.
d) Common examples of where dealloying has been found to occur are
4.3.11.4 Affected Units or Equipment
Underground cast iron piping when exposed to certain soils.
 In cooling water applications, heat exchanger tubing (brass, Al
brass) is susceptible to dealloying in some brackish and seawater
applications but often the tube sheets suffer significant damage.
Problems may also occur in some fresh or domestic water
systems.
 Boiler feed water piping systems and after boiler components
may suffer dealloying including bronze pumps, Monel strainers and
brass pressure gage fittings.
4.3.11.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
There is often a significant color change or a deep etched
(corroded) appearance as one element is removed from the alloy.

Attack may be uniform through the cross-section (layer-type)

or it can be localized (plug-type) (Figure 4-101 and Figure 4-102).
 In some cases, the original material is completely dealloyed
yet the component exhibits virtually no dimensional or other
visible changes.
4.3.11.6 Prevention/Mitigation

 It is often difficult to predict whether conditions will be conducive

to dealloying in a particular environment or service, so that one must
be cognizant of the susceptibility of certain alloys, and the possible
resulting consequences.
Resistance to dealloying can sometimes be improved by the
addition of certain alloying elements , For example, tin tends to
inhibit dealloying of copper alloys; admiralty brass is inhibited by the
addition of a very small amount of phosphorous, antimony or arsenic;
and dealuminification of aluminum-bronze can be prevented by heat
treatment to produce an α and β microstructure.
4.3.11.7 Inspection and Monitoring

 Many alloys change color in the affected area, however, scale

removal may be required to determine the depth of attack.
Dealloying in brasses is visually evident by a reddish, copper
color instead of the yellow brass color.
 Metallographic examination may be required to confirm the
extent of damage.
 A significant reduction in hardness may accompany
dealloying, although affected areas may be localized.
4.3.12 Graphitic Corrosion
a) Cast irons are comprised of graphite particles embedded in an
iron matrix. Graphitic corrosion is a form of dealloying in which the
iron matrix is corroded, leaving corrosion products and porous
graphite.
b) Attack results in a porous structure with a loss of strength,
ductility and density. It usually occurs under low pH and stagnant
conditions, especially in contact with soils or waters high in sulfates.
4.3.12.3 Critical Factors

a) include the composition of the alloy and exposure conditions including

temperature, degree of aeration, pH and exposure time Factors that
influence graphitic corrosion.
b) Damage occurs in the presence of moisture or an aqueous phase, usually
below 200°F (93°C).
c) Damage may take many months or years to progress but can increase in
severity if the pH drops. Much of the damage occurs during stagnant
conditions when high concentrations of sulfates are present.
d) Graphite is cathodic to the iron matrix. The iron matrix preferentially
corrodes and cathodically protects the graphite in certain conductive waters
or soils.
4.3.12.2 Affected Materials
 Primarily gray cast iron, but also nodular and malleable cast
irons experience graphitic corrosion.

However, nodular and malleable cast irons tend to crumble

when attacked. White iron is not subject to this damage because
there is no free graphite.

4.3.12.3 Affected Units or Equipment

Graphitic corrosion can occur in soft water, salt water, mine
waters, dilute acids and in underground piping as well as in boiler
feedwater equipment.
 Fire water systems are particularly vulnerable.
4.3.12.5 Appearance or Morphology of Damage
 Damage may be widespread or it may also occur in localized
areas in which the majority of the component is unaffected.
 The damage may not be noticeable upon visual inspection even
where the full wall thickness is degraded.
 Damaged areas will be soft and easily gouged with a knife or
hand tool.
Metallographic examination may be required to confirm the
extent of damage (Figure 4-103 through Figure 4-110).
4.3.12.6 Prevention/Mitigation

It is often difficult to predict if exposure conditions will cause

this form of dealloying in a particular environment or service. One
must be aware of the potential susceptibility of cast irons.
 Internal graphitic corrosion can be prevented by coatings and/or
cement linings.
 External graphitic corrosion can be prevented by external
coatings or cathodic protection in severely corrosive soils.
4.3.12.7 Inspection and Monitoring
 a) UT is not a good method for detecting damage.
b) Acoustic techniques (loss of “metallic ring”) and ultrasonic
attenuation are applicable.
c) A significant reduction in hardness may accompany
dealloying, although affected areas may be localized.
THANKS