Yarn Technology and Qu

ality
By Zhang Shangyong ,Wang Xungai
► Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Yarn Technology
► Chapter 2 Yarn Evenness
► Chapter 3 Fibre Preparations for Spinning
► Chapter 4 Yarn Spinning Systems
► Chapter 5 Yarn Technology Extension
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Yar
n Technology

► 1.1 Yarn count

► 1.2 Yarn twist
► 1.3 The designation of yarn structures
 1.1 Yarn count （纱线细度）
Introduction
Yarns come in different sizes. They can be
quite thick, or they can be very thin. Since
by their very nature textile yarns are soft
and squashy, the ‘thickness’ of a yarn can
not be easily measured by yarn diameter.
But textile yarns are often sold on a weight
basis, so it is natural to express the size of
a yarn in terms of its weight or mass.
The two basic ways of doing this are by
indicating either how much a given length
of yarn weighs (the direct system) （定长
制） or what the length of yarn will be in
a given weight (the indirect system) （定
重制） .
These two broad yarn count systems are
expressed below

Weight of yarn
Direct yarn count 
Given length

Length of yarn
Indirect yarn count 
Given weight
Because a textile yarn is usually a very
slender assembly of tiny fibres, it is
conceivable that the weight of a yarn in a
given length will be very small while the
length of a yarn in a given weight will be
quite large.
Consequently, the yarn count figures would
get either incredibly small (direct system)
or large (indirect system) unless special
units are used. Over the years, many
different units have been used in different
sectors of the textile industry. This topic
describes these different units and the
conversions involved.
Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:

 understand the definitions for different

yarn count systems
 know the conversion between yarn
counts
 appreciate the effect of moisture on yarn
count results
Direct Count Systems

The direct systems are based on the weight

or mass per unit length of yarn. Some typical
direct systems are given below, together
with their definitions. Please note that while
the weight unit is gram, different lengths are
used in the definitions.
1.Tex （特克斯） (g/1000m)

This is the mass in gram of one kilometre, or

1,000 metres, of the product.

If one thousand meters of yarn weigh 20 grams or

one hundred meters of the yarn weigh 2 grams,
the yarn would be 20 tex. On the other hand, if
100 metres of yarn weigh 5 grams, then the count
of the yarn will be 50 tex.
2.Dtex （分特） (g/10,000m)

This is called deci-tex. It is the mass in gram of ten

kilometre, or 10,000 metres, of the product. It is a
smaller unit than tex (1 tex = 10 dtex), and is
usually used for fibres and filament yarns.

A 167 dtex polyester filament would weigh 167

grams for every 10,000 meters of the filament.
3.Ktex （千特） (g/m)

This is called kilo-tex. It is the mass in gram of one

metre of the product. It is a much larger unit than tex
(1 ktex = 1,000 tex), and is usually used for heavy
products such as slivers.

If a sliver weighs 5 grams per metre, then the count

of this sliver would be 5 ktex.

The tex system (tex, ktex, dtex) is the preferred

standard system. By definition,
1 ktex = 1,000 tex = 10,000 dtex
4.Denier （旦尼尔） (g/9,000m)

Denier is also used extensively in the industry,

particularly for manufactured fibres and silk. It is the
mass in gram of nine kilometres, or 9,000 metres, of
the product.

By definition,
1 dtex = 0.9 denier

If a 300 denier yarn is made up of 1.5 denier

individual filaments, there will be a total number of
filaments in the yarn.
Indirect Count Systems

Indirect count systems are not as straightforward

as the direct ones. In the early history of yarn
manufacture, different spinners, often
geographically and culturally isolated from one
another, devised their own ways of measuring
yarn thickness. Consequently, there are numerous
indirect count systems that have been, and
continue to be, used in the industry.
 Some examples are given below, together with
the mass and length conversions ：
1.Commonly used
- Metric （公制） (Nm) m/g

- English Cotton （英制棉纱） (Nec) No. of 840 yard

hanks per
pound

- Worsted （精纱毛纱英制） (Nw) No. of 560 yard

hanks per
pound
The metric count (Nm) is relatively straightforward.
It is the length in metre of one gram of the
product. For example, if one gram of yarn
measures 40 metres, then the metric count of this
yarn would be 40 Nm.

Similarly, if one pound of cotton yarn measures

1,680 yards, or two hanks of 840 yards, the
English cotton count of this yarn will be 2 Nec.
Please note that a hank of yarn is an unsupported
coil consisting of wraps of yarn of a certain length.

The conversions between different units will be

discussed later.
2.Less commonly used

- linen （亚麻） , hemp （大麻） No. of 300 yard

,ramie （苎麻） hanks per pound
- asbestos( 石棉） " " 50 " "
" "
- glass （玻璃丝 ) " " 100 " " " "
- spun silk （绢丝） " " 840 " " " "
- raw silk （生丝） " " 1000 " " "
ounce
3.Occasionally used in the woollen industry

- Yorkshire skein No. of 560 yard hanks

per pound
-West of England " " 320 " " " "
- American cut " " 300 " " " "
- American run " " 100 " " " ounce
- Dewsbury " " 1 " " " ounce
- Galashiels " " 300 " " " 24ounces
You may wonder how the strange length
units such as 840 yard hank and 560 yard
hank came about. The first mass-production
spinner – the spinning-jenny was able to
spin yarns simultaneously onto several
bobbins （滚筒） and filled the bobbins up
at the same time. The bobbins were
changed after 840 yards of cotton yarns
were wound onto them. To estimate the
thickness of the yarns, the spinner simply
counted how many full bobbins were needed
to balance a weight of one pound.
Conversion between Different Yarn Counts

It is often necessary to make conversions between

different yarn count systems. For this purpose, the
following mass (weight) and length conversions are
needed:
1 yard (yd)= 0.9144 m
1 pound (lb)= 0.4536 kg
1 ounce (oz)= 1/16 lb
1 dram 9dr)= 1/16 oz
1 grain (gr)= 1/7000 lb
Worked Examples

Question1:
What is the conversion factor between worsted
count (Nw) and tex ?
Solution:
According to definition, one worsted count (Nw) =
one 560 yard hank per pound, or

1  560 yard
1 Nw 
pound

Since 1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 m and 1 pound (lb) =

0.4536 kg, the above equation becomes,
1  560  0.9144 m 512.064 m 1.12892 m
1 Nw   
453.6 g 453.6 g g
Therefore, for a yarn of Nw worsted count, each
gram of this yarn would measure 1.12892 times
Nw meters. Since tex is the mass in gram of a
1,000 meters of yarn, we need the number of
grams in 1000 m of the yarn.
1000 885.8
No of grams per 1000 m  tex   
1.12892 Nw Nw
The above equation can also be written as:
885.8
Nw 
tex
So the conversion factor is 885.5.
Question2:
If a yarn is 20 tex, what is the worsted count of this
yarn?
Answer:
Using the conversion factor given above, the worsted
885.8
yarn count is  44.3 Nw
20

Conversion between other count systems can be

worked out in a similar way. Table 1.1 lists commonly
used conversion factors. You may try to work them
out yourself.
Moisture and Yarn Count
Regardless of the yarn count system used, it is
necessary to measure the weight and length of a
yarn in order to determine its count. But most
fibres, particularly natural fibres, absorb moisture
from atmosphere. The weight of the yarn will be
different at different moisture level. The water
content in textiles can be expressed as either
moisture content （含水率） or as regain
（回潮率） .
Their definitions are:
Mass of absorbed water in specimen (W )
Re gain ( R )  100
Mass of dry specimen ( D)

Mass of absorbed water in specimem (W )

Moisture content ( M )  100
Mass of original undried specimen (W  D)

From these definitions, the conversion between

regain (R) and moisture content (M) can be worked
out according to the equation below:

R
M 
1 R
In commercial transactions, the mass to
invoice is worked out on the basis of an
agreed conventional regain level, not on the
actual regain of the yarns (or other textiles)
being traded. This is very important.
Because, in the absence of an agreed
conventional regain level, smart sellers may
take advantage of the moisture absorption
property of their textiles and rip the buyers
off with large quantity of water in their
products.
The conventional regain levels, to be used
for calculation of the legal commercial mass,
have been established by national or
international standards. These commercial
regain values are purely arbitrary values
arrived at for commercial purposes for
interested parties, and they often vary from
fibre to fibre and from country to country.
In Australia, the conventional regain rates for
some fibres are given in Table 1.2
Table 1.2: Conventional regain rate for selected fibres

Fibre Conventional regain (%)

Wool and hair fibres

Combed (worsted) 18.25
Carded (woollens) 17
Cotton
Normal cotton 8.5
Mercerised cotton 10.5
Silk 11
Polyester
Staple fibre 1.5

Continuous filament 1.5

Conditioning the whole lot of yarns or other
textile materials to the conventional regain rates
given above is not practical, because of the time
required etc. In calculating the commercial mass
to invoice for a lot, the following procedures are
often followed:
(1) Extract a sample of mass (gw) from the lot
(whose total gross weight is GW)
(2) Determine the dry weight (dw) of the sample
by oven drying to completely evaporate the
moisture contained in it.
(3) Calculate the commercial mass to invoice
(cw), based on a conventional regain R%, by
means of the formula:
dw 100  R %
cw  GW  
gw 100
Example:
Suppose a lot of worsted yarn is to be shipped to a
buyer, and the gross weight of lot is 1000 kg. We now
need to work out the commercial mass to invoice for
the lot of yarn.
Answer:
We first extract a small sample (say 500 grams) from
the lot. After oven drying of this small sample, the
dried mass becomes, say, 450 grams. For worsted
yarn, the conventional regain rate is 18.25%
according to Table 1.2. Therefore, the commercial
mass to invoice should be: 1000  450  100  18.25  1064.25 (kg )
500 100
Review questions

1.Suppose you have two cotton yarns. The count

of yarn A is 20 tex, and that of yarn B is 20 Nec.
Which yarn is a thicker one? You need to justify
your answer via proper count conversions.
2.If a worsted yarn has a count of 40 Nw
(worsted count) at a regain level of 20%, what
would be the count of this yarn, in tex, when it is
oven-dried?
 1.2 Yarn twist( 纱线捻度 )
Introduction
In the manufacture of staple fibre yarns( 短纤纱 ),
twist is inserted into the fine strand of fibres to hold
the fibres together and impart the desired properties
to the twisted yarns. Without twist, the fine strand of
fibres would be very weak and of little practical use.
A change in the level of twist also changes many
yarn properties, such as strength and softness. This
topic describes the nature of yarn twist, the effect of
twist on yarn properties, as well as twist
measurement.
Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
 understand the effect of twist on certain yarn and
fabric properti
 appreciate the importance of surface twist angle
and of selecting the right twist factor for different
yarns
 know how to calculate the twist contraction
 know the basic rules that apply to twist
measurements
Nature of twist
 Types of twist
(1) Real twist
To insert a real twist into a length of yarn, one end
of the yarn should be rotated relative to the other
end, as indicated in figure2.1(a)
(2) False twist( 假捻）
When inserting false twist into a length of yarn,
both ends of the yarn are clamped, usually by
rollers, and twist is inserted with a false twister
between the clamping points, as indicated in figure
If the yarn is not traversing along its axis,
the twist will be in opposite directions
above and below the false twister. If the
false twister is removed, the opposite twists
will cancel out one another, leaving no real
twist in the length of yarn. If the yarn is
traversing along its axis, then the section of
the yarn moving away from the false
twister would have no net twist, as
indicated in figure 2.1(b)
False twisting is a very important
phenomenon, which has considerable
practical implications in yarn technology.
False twisting is featured in many key
processes that we will discuss later,
including woollen ring spinning, open-end
rotor and friction spinning, air jet spinning,
and filament yarn texturing.
 Twist direction （捻向）
A twist can be either in Z direction or S direction as
indicated in figure 2.2, depending on the orientation of
the surface fibre in relation to yarn axis.

S-Twist Z-Twist
It is worth noting that twist direction affects fabric
properties. For example , This figure 2.3 shows two
identical twill-weave fabrics with the warp yarn of
different twist direction.
S twist Twill direction Z twist

(A) (B)
(Short arrows i ndicate direction of light
reflected from the warp and weft yarns)
Fabric A will be more lustrous than fabric B,
because light reflected by fibres in the warp and
weft is in the same direction. Fabric A will be softer
while fabric B firmer, because in Fabric B, the
surface fibres on the warp and weft in the region of
contact are aligned in the same direction and they
may ‘get stuck’ inside each other and reduce the
mobility of the intersection. Whereas for fabric A,
the surface fibres on the warp and weft in the
region of contact are crossed over, and they can
move about easily. The freedom of movement at
the yarn intersections is the key for fabric softness.
 Self-locking effect （自锁效应 ）

Because of twist in a yarn, the fibres on yarn surface

take a roughly helical configuration around the yarn.
When the yarn is under tension, these surface fibres
are also under tension. However, because of the
helical configuration, part of the tenon is diverted
radially, which creates a radial pressure. This is
illustrated in figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 Helical fibre under tension (Lord 1981, p. 75)

The radial pressure tends to pack the fibres together,
increasing the normal force between them, and so
increasing their frictional resistance to slipping past
each other. The more tension is applied to the yarn,
the more it locks together, hence 'self-locking'. An
analogy is, when you wind a string around your arm,
as you pull the string along the arm and away from
each other, the string bites deeper into the flesh.

Without twist, there won’t be any self-locking effect to

prevent fibre slippage. Consequently the yarn would
have no strength.
Effect of twist level on yarn strength
The level of twist is usually expressed in number of
turns per metre (tpm). Number of turns per inch or
twist per inch (tpi) is also used in the industry.

Fig. 2.5: Effect of twist level on the strength of staple (spun) yarn
More twist gives greater radial component to any
applied tension, so increases resistance of fibres to
slip and the strength of yarn increases as a
consequence. This is depicted by the ‘coherence
curve’ （连续性曲线 ） in figure 2.5.

On the other hand, if a bundle of parallel filaments is

twisted, the twist will put the individual filaments
under torsional stress. This stress weakens the
filaments and the strength of the filament would
decrease as the level of twist increases. This is
depicted by the ‘obliquity curve’ （倾斜曲线） in
figure 2.5.
For staple fibre yarns, these two curves combine to
give the actual 'twist-strength curve' for a staple
fibre yarn as shown by the heavy line in figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5 indicates that for staple fibre yarn,

increasing the twist level will increase yarn

It should be noted that for continuous filament yarn,

the obliquity curve applies. In other words, twisting a
continuous filament yarn only reduces the yarn
strength, regardless of the twist level used. If a
continuous multi-filament yarn is twisted, the reason
for the twist is to keep the individual filaments
together, not for strength.
Twist angle （捻回角）
This is the angle of fibres to yarn axis, and this angle
varies throughout yarn, from zero at centre to
maximum at yarn surface. The fibres on yarn surface
are the most important, as they bind the others into
the yarn (refer to self-locking effect discussed earlier).

While it is not common practice to measure the yarn

twist angle, the surface twist angle made by the
surface fibres in relation to yarn axis is a very
important parameter. It determines the essential yarn
characteristics such as yarn softness, yarn bulk etc,
which in turn govern many essential fabric properties.
The following example illustrates the point.
In figure 2.6, yarn 1 and yarn 2 have the same
twist level – one turn each. But the surface fibre
on the thicker yarn is obviously stretched more
to accommodate this twist. This would mean the
thicker yarn is more closely packed. As a
consequence, yarn 2 will not be as soft as yarn
1. In other words, even though the twist level is
the same in these two yarns, the yarn
characteristics are quite different.
Therefore, we can not simply use twist level to
represent yarn character. However, the surface twist
angles of yarn 1 (θ1) and yarn 2 (θ2) are different.
They can better reflect the yarn characteristics,
regardless of the difference in yarn thickness.
Yarn 1 Yarn 2

d1 d2

2
1 L

d1
d2

Figure 2.6 Two yarns of the same twist level, but different surface twist angles
Twist factor (Twist multiplier) （捻系数 ）
This is a very important factor that relates to the angle
of twist helix the surface fibres have in a yarn. As we
will see later, this factor is very important for a spinner
because of the following reasons:
• Like surface twist angle, it governs the yarn
characteristics
• It is used to work out the twist to use in spinning,
in order to maintain the same surface twist angle
and similar yarn characteristics when the yarn count
is changed. The twist worked out from twist factor
is also needed for setting up the spinning machine.
Relate twist factor to twist angle
Because it is much easier to measure twist level in turns
per metre than twist angle, we should relate twist level
to twist angle.From figure 2.6, we get,
d
tan  =
L
Also from figure 2.6, the height (pitch) of one turn of
twist is L. Since the twist level is normally specified as
the number of turns per metre, the twist level in one
metre of the yarn would be:
1
twist =
L
so
tan  = d x twist (1)
We also know from experience that yarn diameter
is also very hard to measure, because textile
yarns by their very nature are soft and squashy.
On the other hand, yarn count is normally used
as we have discussed in the first topic of this
module. But we can relate yarn diameter to yarn
count using the expression below:


cubic density （密度） = linear density (Tex)

（线密度） /cross- sectional area (A) （横截面积）
Assuming a circular cross section for the
yarn, we get, -3 -3
Tex x 10 (g/m) Tex x 10
 (g/ m ) =
3
=
2
A( m )  d 2 /4

4 Tex x 10-3
Solve ford: d = 
2
(2)

Combining equations (1) and (2):

tan 
twist =
2 tex x 10-3 / 
K
or twist =
tex
whereK = 0.5 tan   103 / (t.p.m tex )
K is called the twist factor, and is
proportional to if remains constant.
Thus, K is a factor relating twist level to yarn
count. The derivation shows that if two yarns
have the same twist factor, they will have the
same surface twist angle, regardless of count.
Since surface twist angle is the main factor
determining yarn character, then twist factor
can be used to define the character of a yarn.
It is worth noting though there are minor errors
associated with the use of twist factor for the
following reasons:
 The cubic density may be different for different
yarns. It is assumed in the above calculation
that this will not change for yarns of the same
surface twist angle.
 Different fibres with different frictional and
other properties will create different yarn
character.
Nevertheless, the relationship we have just
derived between twist, twist factor and yarn
count is one of the most important in the study
of yarn technology. This relationship is
expressed in different ways for different yarn
count systems.
For the tex system
Twist Factor ( K t )
Twist (turns per metre ) =
tex

For the metric count (Nm) system

Twist (turns per metre ) = Twist Alpha ( m ) Nm

For English cotton (Nec) count system

Twist (turns per inch) = Twist Factor ( K e ) Nec

For worsted count (Nw) system

Twist (turns per inch) = Twist Factor ( K w ) Nw

Please note the unit for twist is also different in the

above expressions of twist factor. In addition, twist
factor is also known as twist multiplier, twist alpha,
or twist coefficient.
Choice of twist factors

Yarns intended for different end uses have different

characteristics. Since twist factor (like surface twist
angle) determines yarn characteristics, the choice of
twist factor is often governed by the intended use of
the yarns. If maximum yarn strength is of the utmost
importance, one would obviously choose the
optimum yarn twist (see figure 2.5) and the optimum
twist factor for strength.
 However, the end-use of yarn may be such
that other properties may be more important.
For example, a yarn to be used for weft or for
hosiery may be required to be soft and bulky
and therefore a low twist factor is used. A yarn
to be used for the production of voile or crepe
fabric will necessitate the use of a high twist
factor.
If one considers staple yarns for the
production of plied or cabled sewing threads
then soft twisted single yarns are used and
this results in the highest strength in the
final thread.
Another important feature to consider is that
the productivity for spinning yarns of lower
twist factor is higher. For these reasons, the
majority of yarns are spun with a twist
factor lower than the optimum twist factor
for maximum strength.
► Table2.1 shows the twist factor most commonly
used for the various types of yarns.
Table 2.1: Twist factors most commonly used
Please note these are reference values only,
and the recommended values vary from
source to source.

Once a twist factor is chosen, the level of

twist required for the yarn can be calculated
for a given yarn count. This twist level is
then used to set up the spinning machine
for yarn production.
The distribution of twist in staple spun yarns

If someone twists your head, it is your neck

that suffers most. That is because the neck is a
‘thin’ place and offers little resistance to being
twisted. By analogy, if a yarn of varying
thickness is twisted, it is usually the thin spot in
the yarn that gets twisted the most.
Invariably, yarns spun from staple fibres (eg.
wool, cotton) are not perfectly uniform, and
there are thick and thin spots along the yarn
length. This variation in yarn thickness will
lead to variation in the twist level along the
yarn length, because twist tends to
accumulate in the thin place.
The fact that twist tends to accumulate in the thin
spot along the yarn has several important
implications:

(1) It exacerbates the variation in yarn linear

density. While variation in yarn linear density is
the fundamental cause of twist variation,
concentration of twist in the thin places will make
those places even thinner, exacerbating the
problem of yarn unevenness.
(2)It improves the evenness of a fibre assembly
during “drafting against twist”
In the drafting stage of woollen ring spinning, the
woollen slubbing is drafted while twist is inserted
into the slubbing (drafting against twist) to control
fibres during drafting. Because twist tends to
accumulate in the thin spots, the fibres in thin
regions in the slubbing are more difficult to draft
than those in the thick places, which have less
twist. As a result, the thick places are drafted
more than the thin places, thus improving the
evenness of the drafted material. This is depicted
in figure 2.7.
Thin place with
more twist

(a) Before drafting (b) After drafting against twist

(3)It has implication for twist measurements
Because the twist level varies along the yarn length,
the twist measured at a short length of yarn may
not reflect the true average twist of the yarn.
Standard test procedures should be followed to
measure the yarn twist accurately.
The relationship between twist and yarn count may
be expressed by the following formula:
1
Twist  p
Tex
where p is usually greater than 1 but less than 2 for
most yarns.
Twist contraction （捻缩）

When a bundle of parallel fibres is twisted,

the distance between the two ends of a
fibre will decrease, particularly for fibres
near the surface of the twisted bundle. As
a result, the overall length of the twisted
bundle is shorter than its length before
twist insertion. The reduction in length due
to twist insertion is known as twist
contraction.
The following formula is used to calculate
the amount of twist contraction:

Lo - L f
% contraction = x 100 %
Lo

where Lo = original length before twisting

Lf = final length after twisting
It should be noted that because of twist
contraction and the associated change in
length, the count of a yarn will change slightly
when twist in the yarn is changed. Twist
contraction increases yarn count (tex),
because the weight of the yarn is distributed
over a shorter length. The following formula
can be used N = Nf
o

1 - C

where No = count (tex) before twisting

Nf = count (tex) after twisting
C = %contraction
Measurement of twist

Twist measurement is a routine test for

yarns. Because of the variation in twist
along yarn length as discussed earlier, care
should be taken in measuring the twist of
staple spun yarns. Some basic principles are
discussed here.
• Sampling rules
The following rules should be observed when
measuring yarn twist:
a. Tests should not be limited to a short length of
the yarn package.
b. Beware of "operator bias" - tendency to select
either thicker or thinner regions.
c. Discard first few metres from package. Being a
free end, it could have lost twist.
d. Remove yarn from side of package, not over
end. Removing yarn over end will change the
twist level in the yarn.
e. Tension in Yarn during test
e.g. For single worsted yarns: 5 + 1 mN/tex
► Principles of measuring methods

The two common methods used in twist

measurement are straightened fibre method
and untwist/retwist method.
(1) Straightened fibre method( 直接计数法）
This method involves counting of the number
of turns required to untwist the yarns until the
surface fibres appear to be straight and parallel
to yarn axis. This method is mainly used for ply
and continuous filament yarns.
(2) Untwist / Retwist Method( 退捻加捻法）
This is the common method used for staple
fibre yarns. It is based on twist contraction
(hence also known as twist contraction
method).
Review questions

1)"For a staple fibre yarn, the higher the

twist, the stronger the yarn". Is this
statement true? Why?
2)A yarn of 40 Nm (metric count) has a
twist factor of 3,000 . What is the twist
level, in turns per metre, of this yarn?
3)If a yarn has an alpha metric (αm) of 100,
what is the twist factor in the tex system
(Kt) and the English cotton count system
(Ke)? You need to show your working.
4)Assuming after twisting, the count of a
multi-filament yarn is increased from 150
dtex to 180 dtex, what is the amount of
twist contraction experienced by this multi-
filament yarn?
 1.3 The designation of yarn
structures
Introduction

This topic describes a method of indicating the

composition of yarns. The yarns can be spun yarns or
filament yarns. They may be single, folded or cabled
yarns. This topic is adapted from “Handbook of
textiles standards for students”, published in 1988 by
the Standards Association of Australia.
Objectives

At the end of this topic you should be able to:

 describe a yarn according to its designation
 designate a yarn based on a detailed
description of the yarn
Systems and rules
Two systems can be used for yarn designation.
► Single-to-fold notation (preferred)
This is the preferred system, where single component
of the yarn is described first, followed by a description
of how the components are combined together to
make up the resultant yarn.
► Fold-to-single notation
This notion is opposite to the single-to-fold notation.
The whole structure is described first, followed by a
description of its components.
► General rules
The following general rules should be noted:
 Use tex for staple spun yarns and dtex for filament
yarns
 "fn" indicates n filaments in a single mono (n=1) or
multifilament yarn.
 "t0" indicates components combined without twist
 "Rxyz tex" specifies the "resultant" count of the
yarn (xyz tex) in its final form.
 specification after a semi-colon is optional
 The following sections list examples of yarn
designations.
Single yarns( 单丝 )
A single yarn, or singles yarn, may be a spun yarn
(or staple yarn), a mono-filament yarn, or a multi-
filament yarn. The ways of designating these
different single yarns are given below.
 Spun yarns( 短纤纱）
The details used in the designation of spun yarns
include:
► Linear density (tex)
► Direction of twist (S or Z)
► Amount of twist (turns per metre)
For example, the designation 40 tex Z 660
describes a spun yarn that has a count of 40 tex,
with a twist level of 600 turns per metre, and the
twist is applied in Z direction.
 Mono-filament yarns （单丝纱线）
The details used in the designation of mono-
filament yarns include:
Linear density (dtex)
Symbol f
Symbol t0 if not twisted; otherwise twist
direction and amount
For example, the designation 17 dtex f1 t0
describes a mono-filament (f1) yarn with a
count of 17 dtex, with any twist (t0) in the
yarn.
 Multifilament yarns （复丝）
The details used in the designation of multi-filament
yarns include:
►Linear density
►Symbol f
►Number of filaments
►Symbol t0 if not twisted; otherwise twist
direction and level
►Resultant linear density
For example, the designation 140 dtex f40 t0
means a multi-filament yarn with a count of 140
dtex, consisting of 40 individual filaments which are
not twisted. Please note that the linear density of
each individual filament will be .
 Multiple wound yarns （并线 ）
These are the yarns that have several components
wound up together, without inserting any twist. This
is also known as assembly wound yarns
1.Multiple wound yarns with similar
components
The details used in the designation of such yarns
include:
►Notation according to single yarn used
►Multiplication sign, .
►Number of single yarns laid together
►Symbol t0
Example: 40 tex S155 2 t0
2.Multiple wound yarns with dissimilar
components
The details used in the designation of such yarns
include:
►Notation according to single yarn used,
connected by the addition sign + and put in
brackets
►Symbol t0
Example:(25 tex S420 + 60 tex Z80) t0(Can you
describe this yarn?)
Folded or plied yarns （多股线）
These are the yarns that have several components
twisted up together.
1.Folded yarns having similar components
The details used in the designation of such yarns
include:
► Notation according to single yarn used
► Multiplication sign, .
► Number of single yarns twisted together
► Direction of folding twist
► Amount of folding twist
► Resultant linear density
Example: 34 tex S600 2 Z400; R69.3 tex

(a singles yarn of 34 tex with a twist of 600 turns

per metre in S direction is twisted together with
another yarn of the same descriptions. The
folding twist is 400 turns per metre in Z
direction, and the resultant yarn count is 69.3
tex (slightly higher than 34 x 2 due to twist
contraction.)
2.Folded yarn having dissimilar components
The details used in the designation of such yarns
include:
► Notation according to single yarn used,
connected by the addition sign + and put in
brackets
► Direction of folding twist
► Amount of folding twist
► Resultant linear density
Example:(25 tex S420 + 60 tex Z80) S360; R89.2
tex (Can you describe this yarn?)
Cabled yarns （缆线）
Cabled yarns have several components, which can be
either similar or dissimilar in structures.
1.Cabled yarns having similar components
The details used in the designation of such yarns
include:
► Notation according to folded yarn used
► Multiplication sign, .
► Number of folded yarns cabled together
► Direction of cabling twist
► Amount of cabling twist
► Resultant linear density
Example:20 tex Z700 2 S400 3 Z200; R132 tex
2.Cabled yarns having dissimilar components
The details used in the designation of such yarns
include:
►Notation according to single and folded yarns
used, connected by the addition sign + and put
in brackets.
►Direction of cabling twist
►Amount of cabling twist
►Resultant linear density
Example: (20 tex Z700 3 S400 + 34 tex S600) Z200;
R96 tex
Single-to- fold versus fold-to-single notations
So far we have used the preferred single-to-fold
notation for yarn designation. Examples of fold-to-
single notation are given below, together with their
equivalent single-to-fold notation.
Example one
133 dtex f40 S 1000; R 136 dtex (single-to-fold)
R 136 dtex f 40 S 1000; 133 dtex (fold-to-single)
This describes a multifilament yarn of 136 dtex after
twisting to 1000 t/m in the S direction. Before
twisting,
the count was 133 dtex, and the individual filament
linear density is 133/40 = 3.3 dtex.
Example two
20 tex Z 700 x 2 S 400 x 3 Z 200; R 132 tex
(single-to-fold)
R 132 tex Z 200 / 3 S 400 / 2 Z 700; 20 tex
(fold-to-single)
This describes a cabled yarn built up from a
singles yarn of 20 tex with 700 t/m Z, plied
with itself with 400 t/m S, which is
subsequently three-plied with 200 t/m Z
twist.
Example three

(25 tex S 420 + 60 tex Z 80) S 360; R 89.2 tex

(single-to-fold)
R 89.2 tex S 360 / (S 420 + Z 80); 25 tex + 60
tex (fold-to-single)
This describes a two ply yarn with dissimilar
components, plied together in the S direction with
360 t/m.
Finally, the following points are worth
noting:
(1) The resultant count is of most use to
the user of the yarn
(2) In textile mills, abbreviated notations
are often used, i.e. R40/2 tex
(3) For indirect count systems, the single
yarn count is normally given, i.e.
2/20 or 20/2 (2-fold 20s); 3/2/60 (3-fold,
2-fold 60s, cabled yarn).
Review questions
►Describe yarns with the following
designations:
►(25 tex S420 + 60 tex Z80) S360; R89.2 tex
►(25 tex S420 + 60 tex Z80) t0
►(20 tex Z700 3 S400 + 34 tex S600) Z200;
R96 tex
►20 tex Z700 2 S400 3 Z200; R132 tex
Chapt 2 Yarn Evenness
► 2.1 Theoretical aspects of evenness

► 2.2Measurement and benchmarking of yarn

evenness
 Theoretical aspects of evenness
Introduction
The foundations for the study of yarn evenness( 均
匀 ) were laid in a 1945 classical paper by Martindale,
entitled “a new method of measuring the irregularity
of yarns with some observations on the origin of
irregularities in worsted slivers( 精梳条 ) and yarns"
(Martindale 1945). For this reason, the evenness
theory has often been refereed to as the Martindale
theory.
Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Understand the statistical limit of evenness (limiting

irregularity)
 Appreciate the effect of fibre fineness( 细度 ) on yar
n evenness
 Know the evenness-related calculations
 Understand the effect of fibre processing on sliver a
nd yarn evenness
Perfectly even yarn( 理想均匀纱线 )
For a spun yarn( 细纱 ) (or any other fibre assembly) t
o be perfect even, we need two conditions:
(1)The constituent fibres are uniform in thickness
(2)The yarn has the same number of fibres in all
cross sections along its length
Figure 1.1 depicts such an ideal fibre assembly with
perfect evenness.

Fig. 1.1: A perfectly even fibre assembly with uniform fibres and ‘butted’ fibre ends
While the first condition may be achievable with manu
factured staple fibres, natural fibres such as cotton an
d wool always exhibit variations in thickness along fibr
e length.

To satisfy condition (2) would mean that the fibre end

s are ‘butted’ together (Figure 1.1). In other words, as
one fibre terminates, another must be introduced to t
ake its place. This would require control and manipula
tion of each fibre in the fibre assembly by the processi
ng machinery. This is not possible with current proces
sing technology.
Because of the variable nature of fibres, particularly na
tural fibres, and the difficulty with individual fibre place
ment in the fibre assembly using current technology, a
perfectly even yarn is unattainable in practice. Therefor
e, a real yarn (or any other fibre assembly) would alwa
ys have some irregularity in linear density, because the
way fibres are arranged deviates from what’s required
to make a perfectly even yarn. The question then is ho
w does the current fibre processing machinery arrange
fibres? Without this knowledge, we can not possibly kn
ow what would be the likely irregularity for such an arr
angement.
To answer this question, we need to look at the whole
fibre to yarn processes and examine what each proce
ss does to the fibres. In the Introduction to Fibre Scie
nce and Textile Technology unit, we have discussed, s
eparately, the processes involved in manufacturing co
tton and worsted yarns. Let us now briefly recap the k
ey processes, from the perspective of fibre arrangeme
nt, before we move onto the theoretical aspects of ev
enness.
Fibre arrangements during fibre to yarn process
ing

Fibres arrive at textile mills( 纺织厂 ) in large bales( 纤

维包 ). It is a statement of fact that fibres vary in
properties, both within a bale and between different
bales. We can certainly not persuade a sheep to
produce identical wool or make a cotton plant to
grow identical cotton. In addition, wool and cotton
grown in different regions exhibit considerable
variations in properties.
To produce a large quantity of uniform yarns
from variable fibres, blending and mixing is
essential. There are two fundamental
requirements of the blended product:
The blend is homogenous, and
The blend is intimate
These two requirements have different but co
mplementary connotations. A homogenous ble
nd means that the blend components are in th
e right proportion, while an intimate blend me
ans the blend components lie side by side with
out regions of concentration of just one compo
nent. If a blend satisfy these requirements, th
en fibres in the blend are thoroughly mixed up
, in the right proportions throughout the bulk
(the whole lot or population).
In other words, within such an ideal blend, a
ll different fibres are arranged in a complete
ly random way, and all the fibres have the s
ame chance of being found at any selected
place in the bulk. Achieving this task is a ma
jor objective in fibre to yarn conversion. But
it is not an easy task, and has to be carried
out gradually.
In the initial blending of fibres from bales, small tufts
of fibres are picked up and combined to make a homo
genous blend first. For intimate blend, the fibre tufts n
eed to be opened out into individual fibres, in the card
ing process that follows.

A key objective of carding is fibre opening. Only when

fibres are opened out into individual fibres can differe
nt fibres lie side by side to achieve an intimate blend.
After blending and carding, fibres are more or less ran
domized( 随机排列 ). Preserving this randomness is a
key objective of the subsequent drawing process.
During gilling( 针梳 ) of wool or drawing of cotton,
several slivers are doubled together first and draft
ed to reduce its thickness. Doubling is a random o
peration because no deliberate attempt is made to
compensate for thick places by doubling them agai
nst selected thin places. If the fibre ends in the ind
ividual slivers are randomly distributed, they will st
ill be randomly distributed after doubling. If draftin
g is done properly, this randomness will persist int
o the drafted sliver.
One problem with maintaining the random fi
bre ends distribution is the fibre length varia
tion. If fibre length is very variable or if ther
e are many short fibres in the slivers before
drafting, the short fibres tend to be drafted i
n tufts rather than individually, and a draftin
g wave appears in the drafted sliver. Since
a drafting wave is a practically periodic varia
tion in the number of fibres in the cross sect
ions along the sliver, it defeats the randomn
ess of fibre ends distribution.
For this reason, some fibre control devices, s
uch as pressure bars( 压力棒 ) in drawing an
d faller bars( 针板导棒 ) in gilling, are often
used to minimize the drafting waves( 牵伸
波 ) and improve the random distribution of
fibre ends. Similarly, in the roving process
( 粗纱工序 ) and during the drafting stage of
spinning( 细纱 ), fibres are also controlled du
ring drafting.
 From this brief discussion of the fibre to y
arn conversion, we can see that throughou
t the different processes involved, random
fibre distribution is a key objective. If all pr
ocesses perform perfectly, we will end up
with a completely random distribution of fi
bre ends in the resultant yarn.
We call this yarn an ideal yarn, and the irreg
ularity of this yarn the limiting irregularity.. L
imiting irregularity is therefore the minimum
irregularity that we must expect from any re
al yarn or other fibre assemblies. A thorough
understanding of the concept of limiting irre
gularity is essential for the understanding of
yarn evenness in particular, and yarn quality
in general.
Limiting irregularity( 不匀率 ) (CVlim)
A common method of expressing the irregularity
( 不匀率 ) of a yarn is to use the statistical term CV
or coefficient of variation( 变异系数 ). Obviously the
higher the CV value, the more irregular the yarn is.
The traditional way of obtaining the CV value is to d
issect a length of yarn into many short sections of e
qual length, say 1 cm, and then weigh each of the
short sections. Assuming we have dissected a yarn i
nto n short sections, and the weights of these secti
ons are: x1, x2, x3 ..... xn respectively.
From these readings we can easily calculate the fo
llowing statistics regarding the yarn:
 The mean or average:
___
x1  x 2  x3  .......  x n  xi (1.1)
x 
n

n
 The standard deviation:

__ __ __ __

s
( x1  x) 2  ( x 2  x) 2  .....  ( x n  x) 2

 i x
( x  ) 2
(1.2)

n 1 n 1
 The coefficient of variation:

s
CV  __
100% (1.3)

 The
percentage mean deviation (known as the U
% value in textiles)
 __



| x i  x| 

U  n __
 100 %
(1.3a)
 
 x 
 
 
The CV thus calculated will be the measured CV, or ef
fective CV. It is the actual CV of the yarn concerned.
The U% value is listed here for completeness. Increas
ingly, it is the CV or CV% value that gets used for this
purpose. For a fault-free yarn with random variations
in thickness or linear density, the following relationshi
p exists between the U value and the CV value.

CV  1.25 U (1.3b)
Modern instrument, such as the Uster
Evenness Tester, can measure the U and CV
values of a fibre assembly at a high speed.
More on evenness measurement will be
discussed later.
Coming back to the concept of limiting irreg
ularity, we have said before this is the mini
mum irregularity that must be expected fro
m even an ideal yarn with random fibre end
s distribution. The limiting irregularity is als
o expressed as a CV value, denoted as CVli
m here. Early works in this area have derive
d the following very important expressions f
or the limiting irregularity of various yarns
with random fibre ends distribution.
(1) Limiting irregularity of an ideal yarn
without fibre variability:
100
CVlim  (1.4)
n
where n is the average number of
fibres in yarn cross section.
(2)Limiting irregularity for an ideal yarn wit
h fibre variability:
2
100 1  0.0001 CV A
CVlim  (1.5)

where CVA is the coefficient of variation of fi

bre cross sectional area.
These expressions indicate that the number
of fibres in yarn cross section is
overwhelmingly the most important factor
that determines the irregularity of a yarn.
Irregularity increases with a reduction in the
number of fibres in yarn cross section. The
fibre variability also has some effect on the
irregularity value. But different fibre types
vary considerably in terms of fibre
variability.
► Cotton and synthetics( 合成纤维 ) (staple fibr
e)
Synthetic staple fibres have very little fibre variability,
and cotton fibres have some small fibre variability.
For these fibres, the number of fibres in yarn cross
section can be worked as below:

Yarn linear density (tex)

No of fibres in yarn cross sec tion 
Fibre linear density (tex)

(1.6)
The fibre variability of synthetic staples may be ignored
and we can simply use equation (1.4) to calculate the l
imiting irregularity of a assembly of synthetic staple fib
res.
100
CVlim ( synthetic staple)  (1.6a)
n
Because of the small fibre variability in cotton, we can
not simply use equation (1.4) to work out the limiting i
regularity. Instead, the following equation is used to ca
lculate the limiting irregularity of cotton fibre assemblie
s.
106
CV lim  (1.6b)
n
Worked example:
A cotton yarn of 25s English cotton count (Ne) consist
s of cotton with a micronaire value of 4.1( )g inch
What is the limiting irregularity of this cotton yarn?

Firstly we need to work out the number of fibres in

yarn cross section using formula (1.6). To do that we
need to use the same count unit, tex, for both fibres
and yarns.
From the first module, we already know the conversio
n between English cotton and tex count systems (
)Therefore, the yarn count in tex is
590.5
tex 
590.5 Ne
 23.62 tex
25
The following shows how fibre fineness is converted int
o tex:

4.1 g 4.110 6 g 10 6 g 10 6 g 10 6 g g
  1.61  1.61  2  1.61 5  0.161  0.161tex
inch 2.54 cm cm 10 m 10 1000 m 1000 m

Using equation (1.6), the average number of fibres in

yarn cross section is:
23.62 tex
n  146.7
0.161 tex

Applying equation (1.6b), we get the limiting

irregularity for this yarn:
106 106
CV lim    8.75 (%)
n 146.7
► Wool fibres
For wool fibre, it is the fibre diameter and diameter CV t
hat get measured, not the fibre cross section area and i
ts CV. In addition, the average number of fibres in yarn
cross section is not as easy to get as the yarn count. Th
e following equation has been derived to calculate the a
verage number of fibres in the cross section of worsted
yarns consisting of 100% wool fibres, assuming a fibre
density of 1.31 g/cm3.
972  tex
n 2 (1.7)
D 2 (1  0.0001CV D )

where: tex = yarn count in tex

D = mean fibre diameter of wool (in micron)
CVD = coefficient of variation of fibre diameter
Since the bulk of the merino wool fibres has a CVD of
about 24.5%, the above equation is often simplified to
: 917  tex
n (1.7a)
D2

It should be noted though this simplified equation is b

ased on the assumption that CVD = 24.5%.

If we put equation (1.7) into equation (1.5) and note t

hat for wool, we have the following expression for the
limiting irregularity of wool assemblies: 2
3.2 D 1  0.0005 CV D
CVlim ( wool )  (1.8)
tex
This equation has the following important
implications:

 For a given yarn count (tex), the finer the

fibre in the yarn, the less the yarn
irregularity. This is the main reason why fine
fibres are more expensive than coarse fibres.
 For fibres of a given fineness (D), the finer the
yarn, the more irregular it is. This explains why
for a given fibre fineness, there is a limit on the
finest yarn count. It is worth noting that the
concept of irregularity applies to not just yarns,
but fibre assemblies in general. Therefore, for a
given fibre fineness, the irregularity of sliver will
be less than that of roving, and roving’s
irregularity will be less than yarn irregularity.
This can also be explained by considering the
different number of fibres in those fibre
assemblies.
 If you reduce the CV of fibre diameter, the irregula
rity of the yarn decreases. Put differently, if you re
duce the fibre diameter CV by 5, you may increase
the fibre diameter by 1 micron without significantl
y affecting the yarn irregularity. This is the so-calle
d 5-to-1 rule of thumb.

The equations for wool appear rather complex. A si

mpler equation for wool is given below:
112
CVlim ( wool )  (1.8a)
n
However, this equation should be used with cautio
n, because it is based on assumption that the CV
of fibre diameter is 25%. If the diameter CV deviat
es significantly from 25%, the above formula will l
ead to error.
► Fibre blends
Blends of different fibres are common and their
popularity is increasing. How do we work out the
limiting irregularity of blend yarns then? This can be
tackled by considering the blend yarn as a ply yarn
consisting of two or more single yarns, each having
one fibre component. If fibres in the blend yarn are
randomly distributed, it is reasonable to assume the
fibres in each component are also random. Therefore,
we can treat each single yarn the same as we have
treated the 100 cotton or 100% wool yarns.
 Given the count of the blend yarn Tb, and the blend r
atio of fibre component Pi, the count of each compon
ent Ti can be worked out according to the formula be
low:
Tb  Pi
Ti  (1.9)
100
Once we know the count of each component yarn,
the limiting irregularity of the blend yarn of n fibre
components is given as follows,
(CV1 lim  T 1) 2  (CV2 lim  T 2) 2  .....  (CVn lim  Tn) 2 (1.10)
CVlim (blend ) 
Tb
Worked Example:
A wool/polyester blend yarn is manufactured on the
worsted processing system. The yarn has a count of
30 tex and contains 45% wool and 55% polyester. T
he fibre fineness for the polyester staple is 2.5 dtex.
The mean diameter of the wool fibres is 22 micron,
with a CV of 25%. What is the limiting irregularity of
this blend yarn?
Solution :
Assuming the blend yarn is a ply of two single yarns,
or 100 wool and 100% polyester respectively, we can
work out the count of the wool component (Tw) and t
he polyester component (Tp) according to equation (1
.9):
Tb  Pw 30  45
Tw    13.5 (tex)
100 100

Tb  Pp 30  55
Tp    16.5 (tex )
100 100
Using equation (1.6), the average number of fi
bres in the polyester component (np) can be w
orked out as:
16.5 tex 165 dtex
np    66
2.5 dtex 2.5 dtex

Since polyester staple has little variability in fineness,

we can then use equation (2.4) to work out the
limiting irregularity of the polyester component:
100 100
CV p lim    12.3 (%)
n 66

For the wool component, we can use equation (2.8),

2
3.2 D 1  0.0005 CVD 3.2  22  1  0.0005  25 2
CVw lim    21.95 (%)
tex 13.5
 Finally, we can use equation (2.10) to work out the l
imiting irregularity of the blend yarn,

(CVw lim  Tw ) 2  (CV p lim  Tp) 2 (21.95 13.5) 2  (12.3 16.5) 2

CVlim (blend )    12 (%)
Tb 30

So, the blend yarn has a limiting irregularity of 12%.

Finally, since some textile mills still use the U% valu

e discussed earlier, the limiting U value can be work
ed using the simple equation below:
CV lim
U lim  (1.11)
1.25
Index of Irregularity (I)
After the proceeding discussions on limiting irregul
arity, we should be very clear in our minds that the n
umber of fibres in yarn cross section has a decisive e
ffect on yarn evenness. Because of this, a coarse yar
n would always be more even than a thinner yarn m
ade from similar fibres and under similar processing
conditions. Does this mean the coarse yarn is intrinsi
cally better, in evenness, than the finer yarn then?
The answer is no. The limiting irregularity provides a refe
rence point. But this reference point is not fixed, it chan
ges with yarn count. A fair comparison of yarn quality in
terms of evenness between similar yarns of different co
unts is to see how close the actual CV of each yarn is to
its respective limit (the limiting irregularity). This would
be a measure of the degree to which the mass variation
s of a yarn deviates from the ideal yarn with random fibr
e ends distribution.
The index of irregularity provides such a measure. It is d
efined as the ratio between the actual (measured, effect
ive) irregularity and the limiting irregularity for the yarn
(or other fibre assemblies)
CV eff
I  (2.12)
CV lim

where I = Index of irregulaity

CVeff = Effective (actual, measured) irregularity
CVlim = Limiting irregularity.
The index of irregularity is a dimensionless para
meter. In the ideal case, I = 1. Since the actual C
V of a yarn is almost always higher than its limit
ing CV, the I value is usually greater than 1. The
higher the I, the worse the yarn is in evenness, re
gardless of the yarn count. Of course, as for limit
ing irregularity, the index of irregularity also app
lies to fibre assemblies other than yarns.
Figure 1.2 shows changes in CV and I of the fibre ass
emblies at different stages of the fibre to yarn conver
sion. It is worth noting that the trends for CV and I ar
e quite different. The index of irregularity (I) graduall
y decreases with further processing. This indicates th
at the fibre assembly is increasingly approaching an i
deal one.
CVeff I Defective passage

CVeff

1
Carded Combed Drawn slivers Roving Yarn
sliver sliver 1st & 2nd

Fig. 1.2: Changes in CV and I values in a combed cotton yarn

production
In other words, with further processing, the fibre end
s distribution is getting more and more random. As m
entioned early, promoting random fibre ends distributi
on is a key objective of fibre to yarn processing. At th
e yarn stage, the index of irregularity is approaching o
ne, suggesting that the yarn is approaching an ideal y
arn.
On the other hand, there is a general trend for the
effective (or actual) CV of the fibre assemblies to in
crease during fibre to yarn processing, with the CV
of the resultant yarn higher than the roving’s and t
he slivers’. This is a reflection of the decreasing thic
kness of the fibre assemblies, and reducing number
of fibres in the cross section of the fibre assemblies
. At the yarn stage, the number of fibres in the cros
s section is the lowest, hence the CV of the yarn is
the highest.
This example again demonstrates the difference be
tween the CV value and the I value. The I value p
rovides a good indication of how close a fibre ass
embly is to an idea one with random fibre ends di
stribution. Because of this, the I value is often use
d as a quality control parameter for assessing the
performance of drawing and spinning.
For instance, if the I value is obtained at eve
ry processing stage, and an increase in I val
ue is found after the 2nd drawing as indicat
ed by the broken line in Figure 1.2, that im
mediately tells us that the 2nd drawing is a
defective one and should be fixed. If all pro
cessing stages are under control, the I value
s should progressively decrease from start t
o the end of the processing as indicated by t
he solid line for I values in Figure 1.2.
Unlike the CV% and U% values, the index of irregu
larity (I) is independent of the count of the fibre as
sembly. This makes it an ideal tool for use in the co
ntrol chart. For instance, if the I value is obtained a
t the roving stage for every processing lot and plott
ed on a control chart, abnormalities may be easily i
dentified before the final spinning stage.
Reduction and addition of irregularities

Figure 1.2 shows that the measured CV (CVeff) of the

cotton sliver gradually reduces from carding to 2nd dr
awing, and then the CV increases again after the rovin
g and spinning stages. Why is this the case then? Wha
t is causing the increase and decrease in yarn irregula
rity. To answer this question, we need to learn the la
w of doubling and addition of irregularity.
► Law of doubling( 并合原理 )

During drawing, many slivers are combined (doubled)

on the input side to feed the drawframe. The law of d
oubling says that if you combine (double) n slivers tog
ether, the overall irregularity of the combined (double
d) sliver will reduce according to the following law:
______

CV I  CV (1.13)
where: CVI = CV of all n slivers
n at the input to the dr
awframe
____
= Mean value of the CV values of all the
CV
single slivers
___ CV1  CV2 .... CVn
CV 
n = number of doubled
n slivers.
Therefore, doubling always reduces the overall irregularity. T
his is not difficult to comprehend if you consider the large in
crease in the number of fibres in the cross section of the doub
led material. The doubled material is then subject to drafting,
which reduces its thickness. As long as the drawframe is func
tioning properly, and the output sliver is thicker than, or as th
ink as, the average thickness of the input slivers, the CV of th
e output sliver will be lower than the average CV of the input
slivers. This explains the decrease in measured CV from card
ing to drawing in Figure 1.2.
► Addition of irregularity

At the roving and spinning stage, there is no do

ubling. A sliver is drafted into a thinner roving,
and a roving is drafted to yarn thickness during
spinning. The net result is a reduction in the nu
mber of fibres in yarn cross section. In addition
, the process itself may introduce additional irre
gularities to the drafted material.
Mathematically, if a fibre assembly enters a drafting p
rocess (roving, spinning) with an irregularity of CVin,
and emerges from that process with an irregularity of
CVout, then the additional irregularity due to the proc
ess itself (CVadd) can be worked out using the followi
ng formula:

CV 2 out  CV 2 in  CV 2 add or CV add  CV 2 out  CV 2 in

The added irregularity comes from two sources –

reduction in the number of fibres in cross section and
imperfect drafting.

The following example will help understand the conce

pts here.
Worked example
Eight slivers, with an average irregularity CV of 4%, w
ere fed to a drawframe. The drawn sliver has a CV val
ue of 3%. What is the total irregularity introduced dur
ing the drawing process?

Solution :
The above problem can be graphically represented as:
Sliver 1
CVadd = ?

CVout = 3%

Sliver 8
CVave = 4%
First of all, we need to know the CV of the input materi
al (CVin). According to the law of doubling (equation 1.
13), this can be easily calculated:
___

CVin  CV 
4
 1.4 (%)
n 8

Now that we know CVin and CVout is already given as

3%, we can calculate the CV introduced during
drawing (CVadd) using equation 1.14.

CVadd  CV 2 out  CV 2 in  3 2  1.4 2  2.65 (%)

As mentioned before, this added CV is due to two

factors – reduction in the number of fibres in cross
section and imperfect drafting caused by material
and/or machine related reasons.
Review questions

1.In the calculation of limiting irregularity, inform

ation on fibre length is not used. This implies t
hat fibre length has noting to do with the theor
etical yarn evenness. Yet in practice, fibres wit
h shorter length and higher length variations u
sually make less even yarns, other things being
equal. How do you explain this 'discrepancy'?
2. A yarn is composed of 40/60 wool/cotton blend an
d has a linear density of 20 Nec (cotton count). Th
e cotton has a fineness of 3.8 micronaire () and th
e wool has an average diameter of 19 μm (1 μm =
10-6 m) and a diameter CV of 25%. What is the li
miting irregularity of this wool/cotton yarn? If the
blend ratio is changed to 20/80 wool/cotton, is the
yarn evenness likely to improve or deteriorate, co
mpared with the 40/60 wool/cotton blend ratio? (y
ou need to show your workings).

.
3.In his classical book "Studies of quality in co
tton", published by Macmillan and Co., Limit
ed in 1928, W. Lawrence Balls described suc
h a paradox - the weaker the fibre, the stro
nger the yarn! Please explain this paradox,
using the information provided in this topic
Measurement and benchmarking
of yarn evenness( 纱线均匀度 )
Introduction
Up till now we have used the term effective CV, actual
or measured CV of yarns. But how do we measure the
CV of a yarn or a fibre assembly and what do we do
with the measured results?

This topic discusses evenness measurement and maki

ng use of the measured results.
Objectives

At the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Understand the principle of evenness testing

 Appreciate the importance of spectrograms as a
diagnostic tool
 Know the difference between Uster Statistics and
Yarnspec
Principle of evenness testing
As mentioned before, the traditional way of
evenness testing is to dissect the fibre assembly into
many short sections and weigh each section, and
then calculate the CV of the fibre assembly from the
weights of the individual sections. This is still a
reference method, by which the accuracy of other
methods is judged. Such cutting and weighing
method is a very tedious process as you can
imagine, considering that a sufficiently long length
of yarn should be measured to get a CV value
representative of the bulk material.
 Zellweger Uster AG, a textile instrument manufacturer
based in Switzerland, has produced generations of eve
nness testing instrument for rapid measurement of the
evenness of various fibre assemblies. The latest is the
Uster Evenness Tester 4, although its predecessor (Ust
er Evenness Tester 3) is still widely used. A photo of th
e Uster tester 3 is given in Figure 2.1.

Fig. 2.1: A photo of Uster evenness tester 3 (Zellweger Uster AG)

The Uster Evenness Tester(Uster 均匀度测试仪 )

measures mass variations along the length of a fibre

assembly. It is based on the capacitance principle a
s depicted in Figure 2.2. The two capacitors detect t
he mass variations or weight per unit length variatio
ns of the fibre assembly running between them. Th
ese variations are transformed into a proportional el
ectrical signal. The signal processing unit will proces
s this signal, and work out the U% and CV% value,
as well as other useful information concerning the
mass variations. All the details can be displayed or p
rinted out.
Evenness test results
The Uster evenness tester provides a considerable am
ount of information on the evenness of a fibre assem
bly, including:

 Singleoverall results
 Diagram
 Spectrogram
► Single overall results

These include the U% and CV% values, the index of

irregularity (I), as well as the number of
imperfections (thin place, thick place, and neps). All
those parameters are expressed as single numbers,
which are easy to use, particularly in a mill situation.
These single values provide an overall picture of
yarn evenness. However, if the results are bad, the
causes of the poor results can not be identified from
these single values
► Diagram
A diagram is simply a trace of mass (linear density)
variation along a fibre assembly. For instance, if you
dissect a long length of yarn into many very short
sections and then weigh each section, you will get
many mass readings (xi) as shown in Figure 2.4.
Mass
xi (individual mass readings)

Mean
mass

Fig. 2.4: A manually constructed diagram of mass variation Length

From this diagram, many useful statistics (mean, CV
etc) can be obtained as shown in the Limiting
Irregularity section.
A diagram obtained from the Uster evenness tester is
given in Figure 2.5. The dip in the middle of this diagr
am was actually caused by a missing sliver, of about
120 m, in the input material for a drawframe. This ex
ample demonstrates the usefulness of diagrams in id
entifying certain faults in the fibre assembly. Basically
, the diagrams can help identify extreme thin and thic
k places, slow changes in the mean mass value, step
changes in the mean value, periodic mass variations
of long wave length etc.
Fig. 2.5: A diagram showing an extreme thin place in
the sliver (Furter 1982, p.12)
► Spectrograms( 波谱图 )

The single overall results are very useful in

that they provide evenness information in
concise single values. These single values are
easy to use for comparison purpose in
particular. For instance, the CV% or index of
irregularity of one yarn is higher than another
similar yarn, we can say one yarn is better
than the other in terms of yarn evenness.
But that is often not sufficient for quality
control purpose. Suppose we now know
from the single overall results (eg. CV, I)
that a yarn is not good in evenness, and we
want to find out what has caused the
irregularity in the yarn. Once we know what
has caused the irregularity, we can then try
to rectify the problem. For this, we need the
spectrograms.
Before we discuss the spectrogram, it is necessary to
say a few words about the nature of mass variations i
n a fibre assembly. We already know that random fib
re arrangements lead to mass variation, and this varia
tion can be precisely calculated as discussed in the li
miting irregularity section. If that is all the variation
we get, then we have nothing more to worry about, b
ecause that is exactly what we aim for in a yarn. Unf
ortunately we often get more than just the random va
riations, for two common reasons:
(a) Variability in fibre length and the presence of
short fibres make fibre control during drafting dif
ficult, this leads to non-random variations in a fi
bre assembly. Such non-random variation is call
ed a drafting wave. It is called a drafting wave b
ecause the mass variation occurs in a more or le
ss periodic manner in the drafted material, much
like a wave of variations along the length of the
fibre assembly.
(b) There may be machine defects or mechani
cal faults in the drafting systems, which cau
ses changes in drafting speed and the actua
l draft periodically, leading to rather strictly
periodic mass variations in the drafted fibre
assembly.
Here we need to reflect upon what has been discusse
d on Roller Drafting in the Introduction to Fibre Scienc
e and Textile Technology unit. For roller drafting, as d
epicted in Figure 2.6, the most important concept is t
he concept of perfect roller drafting.
Back rollers Front rollers

Slower
Faster

Ratch setting

Fig. 2.6: A simple roller drafting system

The concept of perfect roller drafting is: every fibr
e in the drafting zone should travel at the speed
of back rollers until its leading end reaches the fr
ont roller nip. Then the fibre gets instantly accele
rated to the front roller speed.If this is what actu
ally happens in roller drafting, we will get a drafte
d fibre assembly with random variation of fibre e
nds only.
However, when there are many short fibres in the
drafting zone, these short fibres will not move acco
rding to the requirements of roller drafting. They ‘fl
oat’ and ‘swim’ together in the drafting zone, the s
peed at which they travel depends on the speed of
their neighbouring fibres. The end result is some pr
actically (i.e. not strictly) periodic mass variation in
the drafted material. Such practically periodic mass
variation caused by floating short fibres is called a
drafting wave, and its wave length is approximatel
y 2.5 to 3 times the average fibre length of the fibr
e assembly.
With good fibre control, using pressure bars (on cotton d
rawframe) and pinned faller basr (on worsted gillbox), dr
afting waves can be significantly reduced or eliminated.
A common machine defect or mechanical fault of draftin
g elements is roller eccentricity, as indicated in Figure 2.
7. Fig. 2.7: Eccentric rollers cause periodic mass variations

Eccentric front
bottom roller
Drafted material

Speed varies
with radius
r
R
Wave le ngth
(Roller circumference)
Eccentric back
bottom roller
Drafted material

R
r

Wave leng th
(Roller circumference x dra ft)
Because of roller eccentricity, the surface speed (v) o
f the eccentric roller varies as the radius of rotation
(r) varies (n, where n is the roller rpm). If the front b
ottom roller is eccentric, a larger radius of rotation
(R) will lead to higher roller surface speed, which mea
ns increased drafting, resulting in over draft or a thin
section in the drafted material. The opposite happens
with the smaller radius of rotation, and this cycle repe
ats for every complete revolution of the eccentric roll
er. As a result the wave length of the periodic variatio
n is exactly the same as the circumference of the offe
nding roller.
On the other hand, if the back bottom roller is eccentri
c and front rollers are fine, then at the larger radius of
rotation R), the back roller surface speed will be faster,
leading to a reduction in draft and hence a thicker sec
tion in the drafted material. The opposite is the case at
the smaller radius of rotation (r). Not only that, the per
iodic mass variation caused by the back eccentric roller
will be lengthened by a factor of the draft used. In oth
er words, the wave length of the periodic mass variatio
n caused by a back eccentric roller will be equal to the
roller circumference multiplied by a factor of draft, as i
ndicated in Figure 2.7.
Periodic mass variations in a yarn often res
ult in unwanted patterning in fabrics made
from such yarns. They also lead to increase
d ends down during spinning and subseque
nt processing. It is essential in yarn manufa
cture to prevent the occurrence of such ma
ss variations in slivers, rovings or yarns.
Furthermore, the presence of periodic or pra
ctically periodic mass variations in a fibre as
sembly does not necessarily result in signific
ant increases in the CV% value or in the ind
ex of irregularity.
So the CV% value or index of irregularity wi
ll not indicate the presence of those mass v
ariations. But how do we know if a fibre ass
embly has a drafting wave or periodic mass
variation then? This question leads us back t
o discussion on spectrograms.
Hypothetically, if a yarn has mass variations th
at resemble a sinusoidal wave as shown in Figu
re 2.8(a), then a mathematical (Fourier) transfo
rmation of such a mass variation signal will rev
eal the frequency (f) of such variation as a shar
p peak shown in Figure 2.8(b). For a signal that
is not as simple as just a sinusoidal wave, it has
been proven mathematically that it can be cons
tructed by superimposing a series of sinusoidal
waves of varying frequencies.
Therefore, if the original mass variation in the
yarn is of a more complex shape as shown in
Figure 2.8(c), then the same mathematical tr
ansformation will reveal the frequency of eac
h of its sinusoidal components as shown Figu
re 2.8(d). The different amplitude reflects th
e different ‘share’ of the respective compone
nt in the original signal.
Amplitude Amplitude
(a) (b)

Transformation

Time f
Frequency
(c)
(d)

Transformation

Time f1 f2 f3 Frequency

Fig. 2.8: Transformation of time domain signal to frequency domain

If the original mass variation is of a random nature, the
n after transformation, there will be many frequencies o
f similar amplitude. Further, if there is a periodic mass v
ariation in addition to the random variation, then the fre
quency of that periodic mass variation will show up as a
sharp peak after the transformation. Put differently, if a
mass variation signal is subjected to a transformation an
d a sharp peak (“chimney”) appears in the transformed
signal, then we know there is a periodic mass variation i
n the fibre assembly. This is basically how spectrogram
works.
Since wave length is more useful than frequency f
or textile purposes, the spectrogram indicates the
different wave lengths (on a logarithmic scale) ver
sus their amplitude. Modern evenness testing inst
ruments, such as the Uster Evenness Tester, provi
de diagrams as well as spectrograms for the fibre
assembly tested. The diagram is a time domain m
ass variation signal, while the spectrogram repres
ents the same mass variation in the frequency do
main.
Figure 2.9 shows the diagrams and spectrogr
ams of 3 different yarns – normal yarn with
random variation only, faulty yarn with additi
onal periodic mass variation, and faulty yarn
with additional drafting wave.
Fig.2.9: Diagrams (left) and spectrograms (right) of
3 yarns (Uster Spectrograph, Zelleger Uster, PE40
4)
 With respect to interpreting a spectrogram, the follow
ing simple rules can be used as a guide:

(a) A fault-free fibre assembly will give a typical norma

l spectrogram (with neither ‘chimnies’ nor ‘humps’)
(b) A ‘chimney’ on top of a normal spectrogram indicat
es the presence of a periodic mass variation in the fibr
e assembly. The wave length of this periodic mass vari
ation can be read off the horizontal axis (noting the lo
garithmic scale)
(c) A ‘hump’ on top of a normal spectrogram in
dicates the presence of a drafting wave in the fi
bre assembly. The wave length of the drafting
wave is equal to 2.5 to 3 times the mean fibre le
ngth.
Once we get the wave length of a periodic mass vari
ation from the spectrogram, and we know this wave
length is related to the circumference of the offendin
g roller, we can then identify the roller and replace it
with a good one to solve the problem. For drafting w
aves, the use of more uniform fibres and proper fibr
e control during drafting will usually solve the proble
m.

Spectrogram is therefore a very useful quality contro

l tool in a spinning mill.
Benchmarking yarn evenness
In management jargon, benchmarking is a total quality
management tool and denotes the procedure of identif
ying and quantifying topnotch or world-class performan
ce (benchmarks) in a particular business or product cat
egory and comparing the data with the performance of
the own company or product.

Let’s assume we have already produced some yarns a

nd we have tested the yarns for evenness. Now we wa
nt to know how good our yarns are. In other words, we
want to benchmark a product - our yarns.
There are several ways of benchmarking yarn
evenness, including:

 Index of irregularity
 Uster Statistics
 Yarnspec (for worsted yarn only)
► Index of irregularity
Table 2.1 shows a classification of worsted yarns base
d on the index of irregularity of the yarn.
Table 2.1: Classification of worsted yarns based on th
e index of irregularity

Since processing technology is improving and so is ya

rn quality, the data in this table may not reflect the qu
ality of worsted yarns in the future. Generally speakin
g, a good quality worsted yarn should not have an ind
ex of irregularity greater than 1.2 by today’s standard.
► Uster statistics(Uster 统计值 )

While the evenness index value is of use to the yarn

manufacturers for internal quality control purpose,
what matters to the users of yarn (i.e the weavers and
knitters) is the actual irregularity in the yarn they are
going to use. For this reason, the Uster Statistics is of
great practical importance.
So what is the Uster Statistics then?
The following excerpts from the 1997 Uster
Statistics Book (produced by Zellweger Uste
r) answer this question briefly:“Almost half a
century ago, in 1949, the first Uster Standar
ds were presented to the textile public in nu
merical form. This started a new era in the a
ssessment of the technological and commerc
ial value of spun yarns.
Over the years, the Uster Standards have de
veloped into the Uster Statistics, which have
been regularly updated until today and addit
ional quality parameters for sliver, roving, a
nd yarns have been introduced progressivel
y. Simultaneously, the methods and proced
ures applied to establish the Uster Statistics
have been gradually enhanced.”
Today, the Uster Statistics represent the only truly com
prehensive survey of the quality of textile materials pro
duced in the major textile hubs around the world and t
hey constitute the mainstay of global market intelligenc
e related to textile quality.

The Uster Statistics are first and foremost a practical

guide to ‘good textile practices’ in the field of yarn
manufacturing.

The Uster Statistics just seem to have been made for

quality benchmarking on the corporate level.
Uster Statistics 1997 provide data on the following ma
jor types of yarn:
 100% CO, carded, ring spinning – 100% carded
cotton (ring spun)
 100% CO, carded, rotor spinning – 100% carded c
otton (rotor spun)
 100% CO, combed, ring spinning – 100% combed
cotton (ring spun)
 100% CO, combed, rotor spinning – 100% combed
cotton (rotor spun)
 100% CO, carded, rotor spinning – 100$ carded cot
ton (rotor spun)
 100% WO, worsted spinning – 100% wool yarn (w
orsted ring spun)
Provisional data is also provided for the following typ
es of yarn:

 100% PES, ring spinning – 100% polyester (ring spun)

 100% CV, ring spinning - 100% Rayon (ring spun)
 100% CV, rotor spinning – 100% Rayon (rotor sp
un)
 65/35, 67/33 PES/CO, combed, ring spinning – 65
% polyester/35% cotton blend, combed (ring spu
n) and 67% polyester/33% cotton blend, combed
(ring spun)
 65/35, 67/33 PES/CV, ring spinning – 65%
polyester/35% Rayon blend (ring spun) and 67%
polyester/33% Rayon blend (ring spun)
 50/50 PES/CO, rotor spinning – 50% polyester/50%
cotton blend (rotor spun)
 50/50 PES/CO, air-jet spinning – 50% polyester/50%
cotton blend (air-jet spun)
 65/35 PES/CO, air-jet spinning – 65% polyester/35%
cotton blend (air-jet spun)
 55/45 PES/WO, worsted spinning – 55%
polyester/45% wool blend (worsted ring spun)
The key quality attributes listed for these yarns are:

 Yarn count variation (between bobbins or packages)

 Mass variation (U% and CV%)
 Imperfections (thick and thin places, neps)
 Uster Hairiness Index
 Tensile properties (strength and elongation)
► Yarnspec (for worsted yarns)
Yarnspec is a computer program developed by Scientist
s at CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology in Geelong. Si
nce the work was funded by Australian wool growers,
the program has been specifically designed for the pre
diction of properties of worsted yarns and the perform
ance of worsted spinning, based on the properties of
worsted tops and the spinning conditions. The predicte
d results are what a worsted spinner can expect in ter
ms of spinning performance and yarn quality if the ope
ration follows “best commercial practice”. In other wor
ds, Yarnspec can be used to benchmark the performan
ce of worsted spinners.
 For single worsted yarns, the program requires the fo
llowing details as the input:
(a) Wool properties (from tops)
 Fibre diameter (micron) and diameter CV
 Hauteur length (mm), CV of Hauteur and
 Fibre bundle tenacity (cN/tex)
(b)Processing details (spinning)
 Spinning draft
 Spindle speed (rpm)
 Ring size (mm)
 Traveller number
(c)Yarn details
 Yarn count( 纱线支数 )
 Yarn twist( 纱线捻度 )
 Dyed or undyed( 染色与否 )
The predicted outcome includes the following details:
 Yarn evenness( 纱线均匀度 ) (I, CV%, U%)
 Yarn Imperfections( 纱线疵点 ) (Thin places/km,
thick places/km, and neps/km)( 粗节，细节 )
 Yarn tenacity and breaking elongation%( 纱线强
度与断裂伸长 )
 Spinning ends-down per 1,000 spindle hours( 细
纱断头率 )
For a worsted spinner, Yarnspec is a step ahead of Us
ter Statistics for performance benchmarking, because
it takes into consideration of the fibre properties used
in spinning the yarn. In addition, it provides informati
on on yarn strength as well as on the critical spinning
performance in terms of ends-down per 1,000 spindle
hours. Yarnspec can also be used to predict the prope
rties of two folded yarns.
Review questions

1.An ideal sliver of 70 mm mean fibre length is roller drafted with

a draft of 10 under the following three conditions:

(a)Perfect roller drafting

(b)Presence of a large number of uncontrolled short fibres
(c)An eccentric back drafting roller with a diameter of 3 cm.

Explain how drafting under each condition will affect the evenn
ess of the drafted sliver, and sketch and label the spectrogram
for each drafting condition.

2.A 50 tex worsted yarn of 100% wool is measured for its evenne
ss on the Uster evenness tester. If the CV of this yarn is 15%,
how good is this yarn in relation to world production of similar
yarns?
Fibre preparation for
spinning
 Short Staple Processing
Introduction
Short staple fibres( 短纤维 ) refer to fibres less than 2 i
nches in length. Cotton is a typical example of short sta
ple fibre. The short staple system( 短纤维纺纱系统 ) is
used to process cotton mainly, cotton/polyester( 涤纶 )
blends are the next most commonly processed fibres o
n the short staple system. Other fibres, such as viscose
( 粘胶 ), are also processed occasionally using the syste
m. Short staple yarns make up the bulk of international
yarn market.

Since cotton is the dominant fibres used, the emphasis

of this topic will be on cotton processing. The actual spi
nning of yarns is discussed in a separate module.
Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Know the flow chart of cotton processing

 Understand the principles and objectives of carding,
drawing, and combing
 Appreciate the differences in the process and
property of carded ring spun yarn( 环锭纺粗梳纱 ),
combed ring spun yarn( 环锭纺精梳纱 ), carded
rotor spun yarn( 转杯纺粗梳纱 ), and combed rotor
spun yarn( 转杯纺精梳纱 ).
Process overvie
Cotton growing
Harvest

w
Ginning Cotton seed - Agricultural
by product
Processes
COTTON LINT
The process flow ch Baling, HVI Classing

(Transport to textile mill)

art for cotton proce Engineered Fibre Selection EFS

ssing from fibre to (Marshalling into “mixes” or laydowns)

Blow-room processes
yarn is shown in Fig (blend, open & clean)

ure Carding

1.1. Drawing
Textile
Lap forming
Processes
Combing

Drawing (x 2)

Rotor spinning Roving

Ring spinning

Short staple yarns

Carded rotor spun yarn, Carded ring spun yarn
Combed rotor spun yarn, Combed ring spun yarn

Fig. 1.1: Fibre to yarn processing for cotton

The agricultural processes include cotton gro
wing, harvesting and ginning( 轧棉 ). Cotton
grown in different regions have different pro
perties. Modern cotton harvesting uses mach
ine pickers or strippers. Since cotton fibres d
o not mature at the same time and machine
picking is less discriminative than traditional
hand picking, large quantities of impurities s
uch as green bolls, leaf, stick, and trash are
also picked up during cotton harvesting, tog
ether with the seed cotton.
On a weight basis, “seed cotton” contains a
pproximately 35% fibre (lint), 55% seed, a
nd 10% trash. Obviously the cotton seed an
d other impurities need to be removed from
the fibres. This is largely done in a gin, whic
h removes all green balls and cotton seeds,
about 95% burrs, 92% sticks, and about 85
% fine trash.
 The actual process (in a gin) that separates cot
ton fibres and the seed they grow attached to is
called ginning. Other machines are also used be
fore and after ginning to mechanically clean the
fibres. The ginned cotton is now known as cotto
n lint or lint cotton. The fibres in the cotton lint
vary considerably in length because of fibre bre
akage caused by the severe mechanical actions
during ginning and cleaning. The cotton lint is t
hen sampled and packed into bales weighing 22
7 kg (or 500 pounds), containing over 60 billion
individual fibres.
 Fibre samples are now tested on the High Volu
me Instrument (HVI) for a range of fibre proper
ties, including strength, elongation, length, unif
ormity, micronaire, colour, and trash. The HVI s
ystem was developed in the late 1960s and has
been increasingly accepted since the 1980s. Bef
ore the introduction of the HVI system, cotton i
n a bale was graded subjectively by experience
d cotton classers for properties such as staple le
ngth, colour, and trash content.
The results were then used to assign cotton
bales into lots or categories. When the cotto
n was ready for consumption, the bales wer
e grouped into mixes or laydowns. Bales fro
m different regions were mixed in proportio
n to the number of bales in each lot and fed
into the opening line machinery in the blow-
room.
Today, objective measurement is widely used. Wh
en the bales arrive at a textile mill to start the texti
le processes, the test results are used as a basis fo
r fibre selection and mixing according to the end p
roduct requirements. The modern cotton mill will
"engineer" its yarn to meet specific end-use requi
rements. The engineered fibre selection (EFS) syst
em, introduced by Cotton Inc. (USA) in 1982, has
been used increasingly by cotton mills to facilitate
this important task.
It is most useful in bale management, partic
ularly for storing and retrieving bales, for sel
ecting bales with fibre properties within spe
cified ranges and average values, for compo
sing consistent bale laydowns and for predic
ting yarn strength and other yarn properties
based on tailer-made regression analyses. T
he bulk of the cotton bales consumed in Am
erica is now managed at the mill level by th
e engineered fibre selection system (EFS).
Adequate fibre blending and mixing is also vital to ens
ure processing efficiency and yarn quality. The cotton li
nt still contains some small trash particles, which have
to be removed by the textile processes, such as cardin
g and combing. The textile processes also perform fibr
e opening, fibre alignment, fibre mixing and attenuatio
n to get the fibres ready for spinning. As indicated in Fi
gure 1.1, depending on the particular processing route
followed, four major types of cotton yarn may be prod
uced – carded rotor spun, carded ring spun, combed ro
tor spun, combed ring spun.
An overview of the key stages is given in Table 1.1.
It is important to keep in mind at this stage that befor
e fibres can be made into useful yarns, they should be
:

 Free from impurities

 Well individualised and aligned
 Well mixed
 Of adequate length and strength
Knowing these requirements will help us understand
why the fibres need to go through many textile proce
sses before the actual spinning process. For instance,
in order to remove impurities imbedded in fibres, we
need to open the fibres first to expose those impuritie
s. Fibre opening needs to be gradually carried out so
as not to stress and damage the fibres too much. In f
act, there are two opening stages:

Stage 1: Breaking apart (break large tufts of fibres int

o small tufts)
Stage 2: Opening out (open small tufts into individual
fibres)
Individualising the fibres is very important. As mentione
d in the module on yarn evenness, poorly separated fibr
es will travel in groups during drafting, which will lead to
reduced evenness and increased imperfections in the fin
al yarn. For a yarn to have adequate strength, fibres in t
he yarn should be well aligned in order to share the appl
ied load on the yarn. The different degrees of fibre align
ment in different yarns often explain the differences in y
arn properties.
Because of the variability that exists both within and bet
ween fibres, fibres should be well mixed before the actu
al spinning stage. There are two basic requirements for
a good fibre mix or blend:

Requirement 1: The blend (mix) is homogenous

Requirement 2: The blend (mix) is intimate
The first requirement entails that different fibres are
mixed in the right proportion, while the second requir
ement can only be achieved with different individual f
ibres lying side by side.

Preserving the quality of fibres during processing is a

lso essential to ensure yarn quality. Damage to fibre l
ength and strength will lead to reduced yarn strength
.

With this overall picture in mind, we can now discuss

the individual textile processes applied to fibres.
► Objectives
The blowroom is the section of a cotton spinning mill
where the preparatory processes of opening, blending
and cleaning are carried out. The blowroom machines
blend, open and clean the ginned cotton before feeding
it to the cotton card.

The ginned cotton, still contaminated with some

impurities, arrives in the textile mill in compressed bales,
bales
fibre properties often vary from bale to bale. Blending is
regarded as the most important process in a cotton
spinning mill. It reduces variation of fibre characteristics,
permits uniform processing and improves yarn quality.
In the blending process, different cottons of known
physical properties are combined to give a mix with the
required or pre-determined average characteristics.
For example, the general formula for calculating the the
oretical fineness (micronaire, μg/in.) is as follows
Wt Wt
Fb  
W1 W2 Wn W
  .....  
F1 F2 Fn F

where Fb is the fineness of a blend of n components;

Wt is the total weight of the blend; and W is the weight
of any one component and F is its fineness. In terms of
weight percentages, the above equation becomes:
100 100
Fb  
P1 P2 Pn P
  .....  
F1 F2 Fn F
where P is the percentage by weight of any one
component and F is its fineness.
The group of different bales to be mixed is referred to
as the "laydown", with laydowns containing between 1
0 and 100 bales. In a modern cotton spinning mill, aut
omatic bale pluckers are used to extract and blend fibr
es from the laydowns. The bale plucker extracts, at co
ntrolled rates, small tufts of cotton from each bale (in
the laydown) and delivers the fibres through pneumati
c ducting (hence the name “blow-room”) to the subse
quent opening and cleaning machines.
In the opening and cleaning processes, clumps
of fibres from the bale plucker are opened to s
maller tufts to facilitate further processing and t
o allow removal of impurities, such as dust, san
d, seed particles, leaf and stem fragments and
motes (undeveloped seeds). A number of mach
ines are employed to perform the opening and
cleaning actions gradually, so as not to cause t
oo much fibre damage. In other words, the ope
ning action in blow-room is largely the “breakin
g apart” stage mentioned in the previous sectio
n.
“Opening-out” or individualising the fibres is
not intended in the blow-room. But some fib
re damage is inevitable. In addition, the ope
ning processes also create neps, or highly e
ntangled fibres. At the end of the blowroom
processes, the opened and cleaned cotton fi
bres are condensed in a lap form to feed int
o the carding process.
► Blowroom installations
In a typical blowroom installation, six distinguishable
zones can be identified as indicated in figure 1.2.
These are:

ZONE 1 - Bale opening

ZONE 2 - Coarse blending
ZONE 3 - Blending (Mixing)
ZONE 4 - Fine cleaning and dust removal
ZONE 5 - Intensive opening/cleaning (optional)
ZONE 6 - Card feed

If the cotton contains only few impurities, then the zone

of intensive cleaning is not necessary.
Figure 1.2 Operating zones in a typical blowroom (Klein 1987a, p.13)
The zone 1 opening machine is usually an automatic bal
e plucker, an example of which is given in figure 1.3. As
mentioned in the previous section, the bale plucker extr
acts, at controlled rates, small tufts of cotton from differ
ent bales in the laydown and delivers the fibres through
pneumatic ducting to the subsequent opening and clean
ing machines.

Figure 1.3 An automatic bale opening machine (Fritz an

d Cant 1986, p.327, courtesy of Rieter Machine Works)
 The zone 2 coarse cleaning (and opening) machine is
usually a step cleaner (figure 1.4) or a dual roller cle
aner (figure 1.5). Both cleaners feature widely space
d striker elements working on fibres in relatively free
flight. So the action on fibres are gentle.

Figure 1.4 A step cleaner (Shrigley 1973, p91)

 For the step cleaner, fibres enter through the entry p
oint (A). They are worked on by a series of 6 inclined
beaters (B, D), under which is fitted a grid-bar syste
m (C). The grid bars support the upward flow of fibre
s while allowing impurities to fall through into the tras
h box (F). The action of opposing spikes between adj
acent beaters helps opening fibres and dislodging imp
urities. The baffle plates (E) prevent the beaters from
creating a circular air current by deflecting the air and
fibre to the next beater. The coarsely cleaned fibres c
ome out the step cleaner through exit (G).

Figure 1.5 A dual-roller cleaning (Shrigley 1973, p93)

The dual-roller cleaner, shown in figure 1.5, has two s
piked rollers (beaters A and B) mounted horizontally,
with grid bars beneath each beater. A condenser fan
downstream the cleaner draws fibres through the ma
chine by suction. Fibres are opened by the spikes gra
dually. As can be seen from figure 1.5, the outlet is p
ositioned higher than the inlet, ensuring that only the
relatively small and light tufts of fibres can fly straight
through. The residence time of fibre materials within
the machine can be adjusted by the baffle plate D.

An example of zone 3 blending machine is shown in fi

gure 1.6. This machine comprises several adjacent ch
ambers into which the fibres are blown from above. T
he chambers are filled successively, but the fibre mat
erial is removed from all chambers simultaneously. Th
is gives good long-term mixing.
Figure 1.6: The Hergeth Hollingsworth multiple mixer (Klein 1987a, p.19)
 Fine cleaning requires further opening of fibres to expose the i
mpurities. For this reason, finer opening elements are used.

Dust removal is not confined to one particular zone. But fine du

st can only be effectively removed when the fibres are relativel
y open. Dust removal equipment is usually incorporated into th
e pneumatic ducting system, with the dust separated from fibr
e by air suction through perforated surfaces. The principle of a
condenser type dust extractor is shown in figure 1.7. The cond
enser also helps even the flow of fibres, because the thin spots
in the fibre sheet laying on the perforated screen will allow mor
e air to flow, hence carrying more fibres to the thin spots.

Figure 1.7: Sketch of a condenser type dust extracter (Lord 1981,

p.137)
 Finally, the opened and cleaned fibres are fed to a ca
rd through a chute feed device. An example of a chut
e feed is shown in figure 1.8. It is vital that a uniform
sheet of fibres be fed to the card. For this reason, ch
ute feeds have control systems to ensure fibres are u
niformly packed inside the chute.

Figure 1.8: An example of a chute feed (Lord 1981, p.1

38)
Cotton carding
► Objectives
An old spinning mill adage states that "well carded is
half spun". Card is also referred to as the heart of a
spinning mill. This highlights the importance of the
carding process. The main objectives of carding are:

Fibre opening/individualising
 Fibre cleaning
Fibre mixing
 Fibre aligning
Sliver forming
Understanding how a card achieves these objectives r
equires knowledge of its operating principle. Figure 1.
9 shows a diagram of a modern high performance fla
t-top card.
 Fibres from the blow-room are supplied pneumaticall
y via pipe ducting (1) to the feed chute (2) of the card
. An evenly compressed fibre batt of about 500 – 900
ktex (g/m) is formed in the chute. A transport roller
(3) forwards fibres from this matt to the card’s feed de
vice (4), consisting of a feed roller and a feed plate. T
he licker-in or taker-in (5), covered with strong metal t
eeth, snatches fibres from the feed device, dislodges h
eavy impurities via the gaps of grid segments (6), and
carries the fibres to the main cylinder (8). The suction
ducts (7) carry away the dislodged impurities. The saw
tooth elements (or clothing elements) on the main cyli
nder (8), which has a higher surface speed than the ta
ker-in, strip the fibres off the taker-in (5) and carry th
em to the main carding zone between the cylinder (8)
and the flats (10) (hence the name ‘flat-top’ card).
The flats comprise some 80 – 120 carding bars comb
ined into a band moving on an endless path. Whe
n in the carding zone, the teeth on the carding bar
s and that on the main cylinder act together to rep
eatedly tear apart fibres into individual ones, to re
move neps (highly entangled fibres) and some imp
urities. As the ‘action’ carding bars emerge from th
e carding zone, a cleaning unit (11) strips fibres, n
eps and impurities from the bars, and the bars the
n return for further action in the carding zone. Ob
viously, the main carding zone is where most of th
e card’s objectives are achieved. Extra carding bar
s (9, 12) are also used to increase the level of fibr
e opening in carding. The underside of the main c
ylinder is enclosed by grids or cover plates (13).
Fibres coming out of the main carding zone are indiv
idualised and aligned. They are carried by the teeth
on the main cylinder to meet the teeth on the doffer
(14), which has a slower surface speed than the cyli
nder. The doffer snatches some (not all) fibres from
the cylinder surface and combines the fibres into a
web because of its substantially lower surface speed
relative to the main cylinder. Fibres not snatched by
the doffer continue to travel with the main cylinder.
These fibres are called “recycling fibres”. The recycli
ng fibres will soon meet with “fresh fibres” from the
taker-in and together these fibres are worked on in t
he main carding zone.
This is how fibre mixing is achieved in cardin
g. In fact, carding is the only process where
intimate mixing can be achieved. A fibre ma
y go around the main cylinder many times a
nd get mixed with many fresh fibres before i
t is finally removed by the doffer. The strippi
ng device (15) then removes the fibre web f
rom the doffer. The web is brought together
as a sliver and compressed by a pair of cale
nder rolls (16). Finally, the coiler (18) deposi
ts the sliver into a sliver can (17).
The carding action of a flat-top card like this is quite i
ntensive, and may cause considerable fibre damage a
nd breakage, particularly for long fibres. For this reas
on, flat-top card is not used to card long fibres such a
s wool. Carding also creates some neps, or highly ent
angled fibres. While carding is supposed to align and
straighten individual fibres, most fibres in a carded sli
ver have hooked ends. The reason for this will be disc
ussed later.
► Card clothing
The tern 'card clothing' refers to the large number of
pins or teeth covering the surfaces of various rollers on
the card. There are three major types of card clothing -
flexible fillet wire, semi-rigid wire, and metallic
sawtooth wire, as shown in figure 1.10 .
carding angle

Knee

Backing
material

(a) Flexible (b) Semi- (c) Metallic

fillet wire regid wire sawtooth wire

Figure 1.10 Different types of card clothing

The flexible fillet wire was developed to mimic the flex
ibility of natural teazles used in the past. This type of c
lothing is believed to minimise fibre damage during car
ding. The fillet wire is designed with a knee on each n
eedle, so that when the needle bends back as force is
applied during carding, the point of the needle does n
ot project too far outwards. Otherwise the points on t
wo adjacent surfaces will touch each other, causing da
mage to the needles. In other word, the knee is desig
ned to prevent point-rise to avoid wire damage. The n
eedles are embedded in the backing material. Dirt and
short fibres tend to accumulate under the knees of fle
xible fillet wire. If not removed, carding efficiency will
drop. Removing the dirts and short fibres from the car
d clothing is called card fettling.
The semi-rigid wire is often used on the flats of cotto
n cards. It is more rigid than the flexible fillet wire an
d has no knee. During carding, some short fibres and
impurities will also accumulate in the semi-rigid wire.
Long fibres have more contacts with the main cylinde
r clothing and will tend to move with the main cylinde
r. The short fibres and impurities removed from the cl
othing of flats are called flat strippings. Compared wit
h flexible fillet wire, the semi-rigid wire has the advan
tage of not choking with fibres and correspondingly el
iminating less flat strippings.
The metallic wire, also known as sawtooth wire, is a la
ter development. It is less prone to damage and allow
s higher production rate. Modern high production card
s are usually fitted with metallic fillet wire. The carding
angle as indicated in figure 1.10 is the most important
of the tooth. The higher the carding angle, the more a
ggressive the tooth is, and more fibres it will hold duri
ng carding. For this reason, the taker-in clothing usuall
y has a very small carding angle, or even a negative c
arding angle so that fibres on the taker-in can be easil
y transferred to the cylinder. Similarly, the doffer cloth
ing usually has a higher carding angle than the cylinde
r clothing to allow fibre transfer from cylinder to doffer
.
► Basicactions in carding
There are two basic actions in cotton carding:
carding (or working) action and stripping action.

The tooth direction and relative surface speed decid

e which action occurs between two adjacent and clot
hed (or toothed) surfaces.
(a) Point-to-point carding
Each tooth has a point and a back, as indicated in figu
re 1.11a.
If the tip of the tooth on one surface points to the tip
of the tooth on the other surface, a point-to-point car
ding (or working) action occurs (figure 1.11b).

point
back
back
point

(a) The Point and Back of a tooth

(b) Carding action (Point-to-point) (c) Stripping action (Point-to-back)

Fig. 1.11: Carding and stripping actions

For instance, the teeth arrangements on flats and m
ain cylinder, and on main cylinder and doffer (Figure
1.9) are typical point-to-point arrangements. Theref
ore carding action occurs between flats and main cyl
inder, and between main cylinder and doffer.

It is through the carding action that fibre opening oc

curs. Both surfaces contest for fibres and as a result
, fibres are separated.
The level of fibre opening in carding can be represente
d by points-per-fibre. This is the ratio of the total infee
d fibres per unit time over the number of working poin
ts available in the same time. As the card production r
ate increases, more fibres must pass through the card,
this would reduce the number of points-per-fibre, henc
e the carding effect on the fibres. To maintain the card
ing effect, extra working points are added on modern c
ards.
(b) Point-to-back stripping
If the tip of the tooth on one surface points to the bac
k of the tooth on the other surface, a stripping action o
ccurs (figure 1.11). The point strips fibres off the bac
k.

For instance, a stripping action occurs between the mai

n cylinder and the taker-in. The teeth on the main cylin
der point to the back of teeth on the taker-in, so the fi
bres on the taker-in are stripped by the teeth on the m
ain cylinder.

It is through the stripping action that fibres are transf

erred from one surface to another during carding.
► Quality of carded sliver
The important quality considerations for the carded s
livers are:

 Fibre length
 Number of neps
 Fibre alignment
 Sliver evenness
 (1) Fibre length
As mentioned earlier, the intensive carding action ca
uses considerable fibre damage and breakage, leadi
ng to reduction in fibre length and increase in short f
ibre content. Changes in mean fibre length before a
nd after carding has also been used to estimate the l
evel of fibre breakage in carding, using the formula
below:
Mean fibre length before carding  main fibre length after carding
% Fibre breakage 
ean fibre length after carding
(2) Number of neps
► Neps are highly entangled fibres. Usually a nep contain
s ten or more fibres. It is a very serious problem in the
textile industry.
► The ease with which a fibre forms part of a nep is relat
ed to its bending rigidity. Immature cotton and fine fibr
es bend easily. They are prone to nep formation during
carding. Many neps often persist into the final fabrics.
Neps contain many immature cotton fibres, which have
less cellulosic materials than mature fibres. During fabri
c dyeing, they do not take up as much dye as the rest
of the fabric, causing a serious fabric fault known as “w
hite specks”.
► Closer card settings between adjacent surfaces, sharpe
r teeth, and higher doffer speed (reducing “recycling fi
bres”) can be used to reduce the number of neps in car
ding.
(3) Fibre alignment
Ideally, fibres in a carded sliver should be straight and
parallel. This is not quite the case. In a typical card sliv
er, the fibre configuration may be:

20% fibres - straight fibres

50% fibres - having trailing hooks (hooks at trailing fibre ends)
15% fibres -having leading hooks (hooks at leading fibre ends)
15% fibres -having hooks at both fibre ends
You may wonder how fibres get hooked up during car
ding.

Fibre hooks are created in carding by the doffer mainl

y. The doffer picks up fibres on the cylinder by allowi
ng the fibre leading ends to hook around its teeth. Th
e teeth on the fast-moving cylinder surface then comb
and 'brush forward' the other ends of the fibres. There
fore, the fibres on the doffer surface have a majority o
f trailing hooks. This configuration persists to the card
ed sliver.
The generation of trailing hooks by the doffer is graph
ically illustrated below.

2
Main cylinder

Doffer
3

Card
sliver
1 - a fibre app roaching the doffer 5
2 - fibre leading end picked up by doffer
3 - fibre trailing end combed forward by cyli nder
4 - trailing hook fibre formed on differ
5 - the trailing hook persists to carded sliver
Fig. 1.12: Formation of trailing hooks in carding

Further processing is therefore necessary to help strai

ghten up these fibre hooks.
(4) Sliver evenness
It would be very difficult, if not impossible, to obtain an
even yarn from irregular slivers.
Uniform feed to the card is essential for the uniformity of
card sliver. Modern chute feed regulates the amount of
fibres fed to the card to improve uniformity. In addition,
some cards are fitted with an autoleveller or autolevelling
system to ensure uniformity. An autoleveller is a system
fitted to carding (and drawing) machines to automatically
reduce the variation of the linear density of the output
material. This is achieved by monitoring the linear density
of the input or output material and, if necessary,
changing the machine speed to compensate for any
deviation from a pre-set value.
 Two main types of autolevelling systems have been us
ed on the carding machines: the open-loop (or feed for
ward) and closed-loop (feed backward) autolevelling sy
stems. The principles of these two types are indicated i
n Figure 1.13.

Material Material Material Material

input output input Measuring output
Measuring
unit unit

Control Regulator Regulator Control

unit unit unit unit
Ref. Ref.
Signal Signal

An open-loop (feed-forward) control A closed-loop control system

system
Fig. 1.13: Open-loop and closed-loop autolevelling systems
For the open-loop aultolevelling system, the linear den
sity (or thickness) of the input material is measured by
a measuring unit. The result is compared with a set val
ue or the reference signal. If there is any deviation, th
e control unit will direct the regulator unit to change th
e process speed to maintain a regular output. In this c
ase, the measured signal is fed forward from input to
output, and this autolevelling system is also known as
feed forward autolevelling system. This system is often
used to correct short-term variations in linear density.
For the closed-loop autolevelling system, the linear den
sity (or thickness) of the output material is monitored b
y a measuring unit. It is then compared with the set val
ue or the reference signal. If the measured value deviat
es from the set value, the control unit will direct the reg
ulator unit to change the process speed so that the devi
ation can be reduced. Since the measured signal is fed
backwards from output to input, this system is also kno
wn as feedback autolevelling system. This system is suit
able for correcting medium to long-term variations in lin
ear density.
 Figure 1.13a shows an open-loop autolevelling syste
m on a cotton card . In this example, the thickness o
f the feed stock is measured at the feed roller. The t
hickness signal is then fed into a programmable cont
roller which processes the signal and works out the c
orrect draft required to adjust the weight of the mate
rial being processed, and commands a servo-motor t
o change the relevant roller speed to maintain a unif
orm output.

Figure 1.13a Open-loop autolevelling on a card (Lennox-Kerr

1983, p. 46)
A closed-loop autolevelling on a cotton card is shown
in figure 1.13b. In this case, the thickness of the outp
ut sliver is monitored by a pneumatic measuring unit.
The signal is fed back to the feed roller so that it can
either slow down or speed up to change the draft.

Figure 1.13b Closed-loop autolevelling on a card (Klei

n 1987a, p54. Courtesy of Zellweger Uster).
Drawing
Converting bales of fibres to a thin strand of fibres or
yarns requires enormous fibre attenuation. Put simpl
y, attenuation (drafting) is to make input material lon
ger and thinner. In this sense, carding can also be reg
arded as a fibre attenuation process. Drawing continu
es the fibre attenuation, it also performs several other
functions.
► Objectives

The drawing process aims at achieving the following o

bjectives:
 Attenuate the card slivers
 Reduce the fibre hooks and improve fibre alignm
ent
 Blend and mix fibres
 Reduce the irregularity of card slivers by doublin
g
Drawing usually implies the actions of doubling and d
rafting. Doubling is the combing of several slivers and
drafting is attenuation.
By now we already know that fibres in card slivers are
by no means straight and parallel, and there are many
hooked fibres, particularly trailing hooks, in the card sli
vers. Many of these hooks should be straightened as fi
bres slide past each other in the drawing process. Slive
rs from different cards vary evenness and other propert
ies, and should be blended to reduce the irregularity. C
otton and synthetics are often blended in drawing in sli
ver form. Finally, when card slivers are combined (doub
led), attenuation is necessary to reduce the thickness o
f the drawn sliver. Drawing plays a crucial role in the fi
nal quality of yarn, and a good understanding of the fu
ndamentals of drawing is essential.
► Basics of roller draftin
The basic elements of a roller drafting unit is shown in
Figure 1.14.

Figure 1.14 Basic elements of drafting

There are two sets of rollers, the front rollers (top
and bottom) and the back rollers (top and bottom).
The front rollers are also known as the delivery
rollers while the back rollers the feed rollers. For
drafting to occur, the front roller surface speed VFR is
faster than the back roller surface speed VBR. The
bottom rollers are the driving rollers, which drive the
top rollers by frictional contacts. The top rollers are
loaded by spring or dead weight to apply pressure to
the fibre material running between the two sets of
top and bottom rollers.
There are several important definitions with respect to
roller drafting:
Input count (tex)
(a)Material Draft= Output count (tex)
Output surface speed
(b)Mechanical Draft = Input surface speed

(c)Drafting Zone = the region between the front and

back rollers, where drafting occurs.
A drawframe usually has at least two drafting zones,
and the total draft of the drawframe is not the
addition, but multiplication, of the drafts in separate
zones. For instance, if a drawframe has 3 drafting
zones with drafts of D1, D2 and D3 respectively, then
the total draft of the drawframe should be .
(d)Ratch = distance between the nip points of the front
and back rollers.

(e)Doublings = number of slivers fed to the drafting sys

tem for one output sliver.

The material draft and mechanical draft are not alway

s equal. The material draft is the real draft. The ratch
is also known as the ratch length or ratch setting. It is
set according to the length of the longest fibres in ord
er to prevent these fibres from being stretched to bre
ak.
► Perfect Roller Drafting
Assuming all fibres are uniform in length and
diameter, and straight and parellel to sliver axis. The
position of each fibre in the sliver will be fully
described by position of its fibre leading end (FLE) and
its length. Existing textile processes can not arrange
these fibres in such a perfect manner that a sliver
would have the same number of fibres in its cross
sections along its length (we call this sliver a perfect
sliver). The best sliver that can be expected under
optimum processing conditions is one in which the
fibre leading ends (FLEs) are randomly distributed. A
sliver with random FLEs distribution is called an ideal
sliver.
For an ideal sliver to remain ideal after drafting, the ra
ndom FLEs distribution should be maintained. This req
uires that the drafting should increase the distance bet
ween fibre leading ends by a factor exactly equal to th
e draft used, which can only be achieved through perf
ect roller drafting.

Achieving perfect roller drafting requires individual co

ntrol and manipulation of single fibres during the drafti
ng process, which is not possible with existing technol
ogy. Nevertheless, near-perfect roller drafting may be
obtainable if the pressure distribution in the drafting z
one is ideal.
► Ideal Pressure Distribution
The ideal pressure distribution indicated in Figure 1.
15 has the following features:

Figure 1.15 Ideal and real pressure distributions in simple roller

drafting

(a) Back roller pressure is enlarged, in order to keep

fibres move at back roller speed.
(b) Front roller pressure is more concentrated or
narrow, so that fibres under the influence of the front
roller pressure can change speed near the nip of the
front rollers.

(c) Pressure from back rollers decreases gradually, so

fibres are not held back while they get accelerated at
the front roller nip.
With an ideal pressure distribution in the drafting zon
e, near-perfect roller drafting can be achieved.

The pressure distribution provided by a simple roller

drafting system is indicated by the broken line in Figu
re 1.15. Such a pressure distribution does not facilitat
e a near perfect roller drafting and often some fibre c
ontrol devices are needed in the drafting zone. Fibre
control during drafting will be discussed later.
► Real Drafting
In a real roller drafting situation, both the pressure dis
tribution in the drafting zone and the slivers themselve
s are not as ideal as the ones mentioned above. Fibres
in a real sliver are of different lengths and diameters. T
hey are often not straight and parellel to sliver axis. Fib
re leading ends may not follow a perfect random distri
bution. There are also grouping of fibres in the sliver d
ue to fibre entanglements and frictional contacts. Besid
es, there may be variatiosn in roller speed and slippag
e between fibres and rollers etc. All these factors contri
bute to the fact that perfect roller drafting is not achiev
ed in real drafting.
Because the ratch of a drafting zone is set according
to the length of the longest fibres, many fibres are n
ot gripped by either the front roller or the back roller
nip for some part of their journey through the draftin
g zone. Figure 1.16 shows a simple roller drafting uni
t with three typical fibres of different lengths in the d
rafting zone. The three fibres a, b and c will behave
differently during drafting.

Figure 1.16 Movements of fibres in the drafting zone

 Fibre a: The front rollers exsert more pressure on thi
s fibre than the back rollers. It has been accelerated to
the front roller speed and is a 'fast-moving' fibre, trave
lling at the speed of front rollers.

Fibre b: This fibre is under heavy control of the back r

ollers. It is a 'slow-moving' fibre.
Fibre c: This fibre is not under direct control of either
roller nip. Fibres which are not gripped by either nip ar
e known as 'floating fibres'. The movement of a floatin
g fibre will depend on its surrounding fibres. If it is surr
ounded by some slow moving fibres and some fast mo
ving fibres, it may be accelerated before its leading en
d reaches the front roller nip if the sum of the frictional
forces between it and the fast moving fibres is greater
than the sum of the frictional forces between it and th
e slow moving fibres. A floating fibre like fibre c may al
so accelerate to immediate velocities depending on the
ratio of the frictional forces. Floating fibres are obviousl
y short fibres. Another feature of this floating fibre is t
hat once it gets accelerated, it moves faster than other
longer ones because there is less restraining force on it
s short training end.
The following observations can be made from this si
mplified description of fibre movements.

(1)Speed change zone

Not all fibres change their speeds, or get accelerated

at the front roller nip as required by perfect roller dra
fting, because fibre lengths are different and fibres at
the edges of the drafting zone are unpredictable (ed
ge fibres can not be controlled effectively). There is a
speed change zone near the front roller nip. This spe
ed change zone will be more localised towards the fr
ont roller nip if fibre length is more uniform.
(2)Drafting wave due to floating fibres

Since the movement of a floating fibre depends on it

s contacts with neighbouring fibres. Some floating fib
res may be pulled forward out of turn by the neighbo
uring fibres that have already been accelerated. Float
ing fibres accelerating out of turn can cause adjacent
fibres to also accelerate, creating a thick place. The t
hick place is then drawn forward by the front roller ni
p, leaving a thin place behind. This process repeats t
o produce alternatively thick and thin places in the dr
afted fibre assembly. This is a practically periodic irre
gularity, and is widely known as a 'drafting wave', be
cause it is caused by floating fibres during drafting. T
he wavelength of a drafting wave is about 2.5 times t
he mean fibre length.
(3)Drafting wave due to sliver elasticity
Due to crimp and poor orientation and entanglement of fibres,
slivers are elastic over small strains. They can stretch under th
e drafting force. As the fast moving fibres are withdrawn from
the bulk of the sliver, their frictional contacts with the sliver cr
eate a withdrawal force, which then extends the sliver. This ex
tension will cause the fibre leading ends to reach the front roll
er nip and accelerate ahead of their turn, and so produce a thi
ck place. A thick place means more fast moving fibres and hig
her withdrawal forces and more extension, causing more fibres
to accelerate ahead of their turn until the sliver reaches the li
mit of its extension. At this level of extension, the number of f
ibres reaching the front roller nip settles back down to the nor
mal level, and so the number of fast moving fibres (& withdra
wal force) decreases. The reduction in withdrawal force causes
the sliver to retract, so fibres reach the front roller nip later th
an expected, producing a thin place. Again, this process repeat
s and drafting wave is produced. The wave length of this drafti
ng wave is also about 2.5 times the mean fibre length.
(4)Periodic mass variations due to mechanical faults
If there are mechanical faults in the drafting system,
such as eccentric drafting rollers, periodic mass
variation will result in the drafted material. This
phenomenon has been discussed in the module on
yarn evenness.

In summary, real drafting may deviate from perfect r

oller drafting because of either material related or ma
chine related factors. In practice, fibre control during
drafting is necessary to reduce this deviation.
► Fibre Control in Roller Drafting
The main aim of fibre control is to keep the floating
fibres at the speed of back rollers until they reach the
front roller nip (i.e. to prevent fibres being
accelerated out of turn), while still allowing long fibres
to be drafted.

Figure 1.17 Examples of fibre control for the Short Staple

Drawframes
Different yarn manufacture systems, and different proc
ess in the same system, often apply different control d
evice in drafting. Two examples of fibre control in shor
t staple drawing machines (drawframes) are shown in
Figure 1.17. The control roller and pressure bar force t
he fibre assembly (in the drafting zone) to take a curve
d path, thus increasing the pressure on fibres at the co
ntrol roller or pressure bar. The increased pressure hel
ps to control fibre movement during drafting.
► Doubling in Drawing
As mentioned in the beginning, drawing often implies
the actions of doubling and drafting. We have already
discussed drafting at length. Doubling simply means
combining several slivers together as the input to a
drawframe. According to the law of doubling discussed
in the module on yarn evenness, if n slivers are
doubled together, the CV of the doubled material will
be reduced by a factor of 1
n or
_______

CVbefore doubling
CVafter doubling 
n
______

whereCV is the average CV of the individual

before doubling

slivers before doubling

Usually 8 slivers are doubled up to give one output sli
ver, as indicated in Figure 1.18. The linear density of
the output sliver is determined by the amount of total
draft applied in the draft zone.
Draft zone

Main
Measuring Break draf t
unit draf t

Creel with feed rolers (variable speed)

Servomotor
(for speed
change)

Cans of input slivers Signal

processing
unit

Autolevelling System

Figure 1.18 A drawframe with 8 doublings and an autolevelling unit

► Autolevelling in Drawing
Fibre control and doubling are necessary in drawing t
o improve the quality, particularly evenness, of drawn
slivers. As in carding, autolevelling is often used in dr
awing to further improve the evenness of drawn mat
erials. The principle of autolevelling has been discuss
ed in the carding section. An example of autolevelling
in drawing is shown in figure 1.18. This is an open-lo
op or feed forward autolevelling system. The input m
aterial is measured for linear density or thickness by
a measuring unit, the signal is processed and compar
ed with set value by the signal processing unit. If dev
iation exists, then the servomotor is instructed to cha
nge the speed of the drafting rollers to adjust the dra
ft in other to reduce the irregularity of the output mat
erial.
► Fibre Straightening in Drawing
We already know that most fibres in card slivers are
hooked fibres, and one of the key objectives of
drawing is to straighten out these hooked fibres.
Consider a trailing hook (T) and a leading hook (L) in
drawing as shown in Figure 1.19.
Back Front Back Front
rollers rollers rollers rollers
T L

Trailing hook i n the drafti ng zone Leading hook in the drafti ng zone
(straightens out easily) (does not straighten out easily)

Figure 1.19 Fibre straightening during drafting

For the trailing hook, it will travel initially at the speed
of the back drafting rollers. Soon its leading end, embe
dded in ‘fast-moving’ fibres under the influence of the f
ront drafting rollers, will travel with the ‘fast-moving’ fib
res at the front roller speed. Since the hooked end of t
he fibre is still embedded in a relatively thick body of ‘sl
ow-moving’ fibres controlled by the back rollers, the dif
ference in speed between the leading end and trailing
(hooked) end will straighten out the hook. For the fibre
with leading hook (L), the hook can get caught easily b
y the ‘fast moving’ fibres and travel at the front roller s
peed, while the unhooked trailing end offers little resist
ance to its acceleration. As a result, the leading hook
(L) is likely to persist into the output material. From thi
s brief discussion, it is clear that one passage through a
drawframe only effectively removes trailing hooks.
 In a card sliver, the majority of fibre hooks are trailing h
ooks. But as the card sliver is deposited into a can and g
ets taken out to feed a drawframe, it follows a ‘first-in-la
st-out’ principle and a reversal of hook direction occurs.
This is known as natural reversal of fibre direction. Beca
use of this natural reversal, most fibres (in the card slive
rs) entering the first drawframe have leading hooks, whi
ch do not get effectively straightened out as we have jus
t discussed. In addition, a short staple combing machine
(the comber) straightens out leading hooks effectively
(which is different from a worsted comb for long staple fif
bres), and trailing hooks must be presented to a ring spi
nning machine (the drafting in ring spinning does not str
aighten out leading hooks).
For these reasons, there must be an even number of p
assages between the short staple carding and combing
machines, and an odd number between the short stapl
e carding and ring spinning machines. You can see this
arrangement from Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 indicates that after two drawing passages,
the sliver can go directly to rotor spinning to produce a
carded rotor spun yarn. However, if a high quality ring
spun cotton yarn is required, the sliver should go
through a combing stage, followed by further drawing,
roving and finally the ring spinning process. Combing
is discussed next.
Combing
► Introduction
Combing is a key process that makes the difference bet
ween an ordinary yarn and a quality yarn. It enables th
e ultimate yarn to be smoother, finer, stronger, and mo
re uniform than otherwise would be possible, at a cost
of course.

The basic objectives of combing are:

(a) Removal of a pre-determined amount of short

fibres
(b) Removal of neps and impurities
(c) Straightening of the retained long fibres
The continuous assembly of long and parallel f
ibres delivered by the combing process is calle
d a comb sliver. Just as long and well-aligned
fibre polymers (molecules) make strong fibres,
long and straight fibres in the comb sliver will
make strong and smooth yarns.

The materials rejected in the combing process

is called noil. Noil contains short fibres, neps a
nd impurities. The amount of noil produced m
ay be expressed as either percentage noil or t
ear ratio:
 weight of noil
Percentage noil   100
weight of (noil  comb sliver )

weight of comb sliver

Tear ratio  :1
weight of noil
The relationship between the two expressions is giv
en below:

100  100 
Percentage noil  or Tear     1
(tear  1)  percentage noil 

For example, a 10% noil is equivalent to a tear ratio

of 9 : 1, and a 16% noil is equivalent to a tear ratio
of 5.25 : 1.
The amount of noil produced is of significant importan
ce. A higher noil means longer fibres in the comb slive
r, but less comb sliver will be produced.

Yarns made from the combed sliver are called combed

yarns. Without combing, a carded yarn would be prod
uced. Combed yarns, consisting of longer and more pa
rallel fibres, are of better quality and command a high
er price than carded yarns or yarns produced without t
he combing stage. A brief comparison of combed and
carded cotton yarns is given in Table 1.2 below. `
► The comb
A combing machine is usually referred to as a comber,
or simply a comb. The short-staple spinning mill uses
only the rectilinear comb with swinging nippers and st
ationary detaching rollers, as originally conceived in 18
45 by J. Heilman in Alsace and further developed in 19
02 by the Englishman Nasmith and in 1948 by the Whi
tin company.

The most common machine layouts used in practice c

omprise single-sided machines with eight heads. Doub
le-sided machines with six-plus-six head are also man
ufactured by the Platt Saco Lowell company.
A typical comb head is sketched in Figure 1.20.

Top comb
Input
sliver
Nipper
Detaching lap
jaws
rolls

Feed
Combed sliver
rolls

Cylinder comb
(Circ ular comb)

Figure 1.20 Sketch of a rectilinear cotton comb

The sliver lap, or the thick sheet of fibres formed on a
sliver lapper before combing, is fed to the comb in an
intermittent fashion. In each operating cycle, the lap is
advanced a short distance (4 to 6.5 mm) and then
gripped (by the nippers) so that a fringe of fibres is
presented to the toothed section of a cylinder comb.
The fibre fringe is then combed by the teeth on the
cylinder comb and in the process, short fibres, neps
and impurities are removed from the fringe. The short
fibres, neps and impurities are collectively called noils.
When the un-toothed portion of the comber roll comes
into contact with the fringe, the nippers open and
swing towards the detaching rollers to allow the fringe
to be drawn off by the detaching (or draw-off) rolls.
The closest distance between the nipping points of the n
ippers and the detaching rollers is called by several nam
es – gauge setting, detachment setting, noil setting. Thi
s setting is the most important setting on a comb. It has
the largest impact on the percentage noil and the mean
fibre length of the comb sliver. During the drawing off p
rocess, the fibre fringe is pressed into the needles of the
top comb, so that the portion of the fringe not combed
by the cylinder comb can now be combed by the top co
mb. The neps and impurities will not be able to pass thr
ough the closely pinned top comb and are removed by t
he cylinder comb in the next combing cycle.
The detaching rolls bring the combed fringe to the tail
end of the previously combed material to make a joint
or piecing. The combed fibres, from many combing he
ads, are then brought together and consolidated into a
sliver and coiled into a sliver can.

The comb operates intermittently in cycles. Its speed is

described in terms of cycles per minute or nips per min
ute. Modern cotton combs run in excess of 350 nips/mi
nute
► Sequence of operations
The sequence of operations of a cotton comb is
described below
(a) The feed rollers S move the sheet W 4 – 6.5 mm
forward, while the nippers ZO/ZU are held open (feed).
(b) The upper nipper plate ZO is lowered onto the
cushion plate ZU so that the fibres are clamped
between them (nipping).
(c) The combing segment (K), mounted on rotating
cylinder (Z), sweeps its needles or saw-teeth through
the fibre fringe (B) and carries away anything not held
by the nippers (rotary combing).
(d) The nippers open again and move towards the
detaching rollers A (nippers forward).
Figure 1.21 Sequence of operations of a cotton comb (Klein, 1987b, p2-4 )
(e)Meanwhile, the detaching rollers A have returned
part of the previously drawn off stock (web V) by me
ans of a reverse rotation, so that the web protrudes f
rom the back of the detaching device (web return).
(f)In the course of the forward movement of the nipp
ers, the projecting fibre fringe B is placed upon the r
eturned web V (piecing).
(g)The detaching rollers begin to rotate in the forwar
d direction again and draw the clamped fibres out of
the sheet W held fast by the feed rollers (detaching).
(h)Before the start of the detaching operation, the to
p comb F has thrust its single row of needles into the
fibre fringe. As the fibres are pulled through the needl
es of the top comb during detaching, the trailing part
of the fringe is combed, thus making up for the inabili
ty of the cylinder comb to reach this part of the fringe
(combing by the top comb).

(i)As the nipper assembly is retracted, the nippers ope

n for the next feeding step. The top comb is withdraw
n. A new combing cycle begins.
► Fibre selection in combing
The theory of combing deals with the key issue of fibre
selection in the combing process, i.e. what goes into th
e noil and what goes into the comb sliver. The percent
age noil is largely a function of the detachment setting
and the feed distance per combing cycle. It is worth po
inting out here that there are two types of feeding arra
ngements – concurrent feed and counter-feed. With co
ncurrent feed, the fibre sheet is fed forward into the ni
ppers while the nippers are swinging towards the detac
hing rollers. With counter-feed, the fibre sheet is fed fo
rward during the return of the nippers. The type of fee
ding also affects the percentage noil in combing.
According to Charles Gegauff’s noil theory, the
percentage noil (N%) are related to the detachment
setting (D), feed distance (F), and the longest fibre
length (L), according to the formula below:
2
D  F 
N %   2   100 ( For counter feed )
L 
 
2
D  F 
N%  2   100 ( For cocurrent feed )
 L 
 
It should be noted that these formulas are used to
reflect the relationship between percentage noil and
important comb settings, not to calculate the actual
percentage noils. The implication of this relationship
on the quality of comb sliver is discussed in the
following section.
► Quality issues in combing
The theory of combing or noil theory discussed in the
previous section provides a good starting point on the
quality issues in combing. Research at Rieter has
shown that the percentage noil has a major impact
on the important quality attributes of the resultant
yarns, as depicted in Figure 1.22.
Improvement i n
yarn quality (%)
100

Yarn imperfections
50

Yarn evenness
Yarn strength
Percentage
5% 10% 15% 20% noil
Figure 1.22 The effect of percentage noil on yarn quality attributes
In a normal combing process for cotton, a percentage
noil between 10 to 20% is expected. Combing with a n
oil percentage below 10% is often referred to as upgra
ding combing, while combing with a noil percentage ab
out 20% is known as super combing. Super combing is
only used when superfine combed yarns are to be prod
uced.

Now that we know the importance of percentage noil,

what are the major factors that affect percentage noil
in combing then? We will need to refer to the noil
theory to answer this question.
(1)The detachment setting (D)

As mentioned before, this setting is the closest distance

between the bite of the nippers and the nip line of the
detaching rollers. According to the noil theory, the perc
entage noil increases as the detachment setting increas
es. At larger detachment setting, more fibres are remov
ed into the noil and the average fibre length in the com
b sliver is longer. Because of the increased fibre loss wit
h increase in detachment setting, the cost of production
will be higher. In practice, spinners need to find the opt
imum detachment setting based on a balance of quality
and cost. The detachment setting on a cotton comb nor
mally lies in the range 15 to 25 mm.
(2)The feed

According to the noil theory, both the type of feed and

the feed distance affect the percentage noil. For the sa
me feed distance, counter-feed results in higher noil pe
rcentage than concurrent feed. In other words, there a
re more short fibres in the comb sliver with concurrent
feed than with counter-feed. In upgrading combing wh
ere the quality requirement is low and production rate
needs to be high, concurrent feed is often used. On the
other hand, if the quality requirement is very rigorous,
counter-feed should be used. Some modern combs allo
w selection of the feed type according to needs.
The feed distance affects the noil, the quality and the
production rate of combing. According to the noil
theory, noil increases with feed distance for counter-
feed, and decreases with feed distance for concurrent
feed. Increase in the feed distance will increase
production rate, because more fibres go into the comb
sliver at a larger feed distance. But the cleanliness of
the combed web, i.e. its freedom from impurities and
neps, will deteriorate at a higher feed distance.
Therefore, a lower feed distance needs to be used for
higher quality requirements.
(3)Effect of fibre hooks

The cotton comb deals with relatively short fibres, comp

ared with worsted comb. The hooks on short fibres are
small. As a result, leading hooks can be removed easily
by the cylinder comb, with little damage or breakage to
the hooked fibres. An exception is when that both limbs
of a leading fibre hook are held in the nippers while the
protruding loop is still long enough to be engaged by th
e teeth on the cylinder comb. This event is much rarer i
n short staple combing than in long staple combing.
Trailing hooks can cause serious problems in short stap
le combing. Some trailing hooks may persist into the co
mb sliver or cause fibre breakage during detaching, par
ticularly if concurrent feed is used. Consider a fibre wit
h a trailing hook just lying in the bite of the nippers. Wi
th concurrent feed, the trailing hook will be pushed for
ward out of the nippers as the nippers swing towards t
he detaching rollers. The subsequent detaching action
may drag this fibre (and its trailing hook) into the comb
sliver, particularly if this fibre is near the bottom of the
fibre sheet where the top comb has not yet penetrated.
If this fibre’s trailing hook is engaged by the top comb,
fibre breakage is likely to occur because of the high fric
tion between the hook and the top comb needle. With t
he counter-feed, no feeding occurs during the forward
movement of the nippers.
During detaching, the fibre fringe gets pressed into the
top comb in front of the nippers, and the trailing hook i
n the fibre concerned is likely to be combed by the top
comb. In such case, the fibre could be combed straight
unharmed and dragged into the comb sliver, or the fibr
e may be broken because of the friction between the fib
re and the needles of the top comb. The fibre breakage
will generate two short fibres, one proceeding to the co
mb sliver, and the other blocked by the top comb but re
moved as noil in the next combing cycle. This has two
major undesirable consequences – short fibres in the co
mb sliver and increased combing waste.
The trailing hook, or other forms of fibre disorientatio
n, may also carry its neighbouring short fibres forward
to be detached by the detaching rollers, again increasi
ng the number of short fibres in the comb sliver. Larg
e trailing hooks will also reduce the effective length of
even a relatively long fibre. The comb is likely to treat
this fibre just like an ordinary short fibre and remove i
t into the noil. In other words, trailing hooks (or other
forms of fibre disorientation) can also increase the nu
mber of long fibres in the noil, which of course is und
esirable.
From this discussion, it is clear that good fibre alignm
ent in the feed lap is essential for quality combing. Tr
ailing hooks are particularly troublesome. This require
s good lap preparation before combing. It also require
s that an even (i.e. two) number of machines betwee
n the card and the comb, as indicated in Figure 1.1. T
his ensures leading hooks mainly are fed into the cott
on comb.
(4) Comb overlap effect in piecing

At the end of each combing cycle, a small tuft of com

bed fibres is detached. This tuft is then partially overla
pped on the previously detached tufts, like shingles o
n a roof or roofing tiles. Such pieced structure, or the
comb overlap effect, is an inherent source of faults in
the operation of rectilinear combs. Because of this, th
e combed sliver exhibits periodic mass variations alon
g its length, which can be revealed using the spectrog
ram.

The combing process is normally followed by one or t

wo passages of drawing before spinning. The drawing
subsequent to combing will reduce the comb overlap
effect. If a combed ring spun yarn is to be produced,
a roving process is needed before the ring spinning pr
ocess.
Roving
► Introduction
A roving is a fine strand (slubbing) intended to be fed
into the ring spinning machines (ring frames) for maki
ng yarns. Rotor spinning machine and other new spin
ning systems use slivers as feed materials. But conven
tional ring frames still use rovings as the feed material
. A roving is much thinner than a sliver, but thicker th
an a yarn.

The main objective of the roving machine is to further

attenuate the drawn sliver (to make it longer and thin
ner) and get it ready for spinning.
The drawframe has already produced a sliver that is cl
ean, and consists of more or less parallel fibres. Such
a sliver satisfies the essential requirements for yarn pr
oduction. The question is why is there a need for the r
oving process and why can’t we feed slivers to conven
tional ring frames? There are two major reasons for thi
s need. First, a very high draft, in the order of 300 to
500, is required to bring the thickness of a sliver into t
he thickness of a yarn. Conventional ring frames can n
ot cope with such a high draft. Second, the drawframe
slivers are deposited in bulky sliver cans, which are diff
icult to transport and present to the ring frames as fee
d material. The much smaller roving packages are bett
er suited for the purpose.
► Roving frame
The commonly used roving machine for cotton is a fl
yer frame (or speed frame) as shown in Figure 1.23.
Back Drafting Unit
rolle rs
Front
rolle rs
Vd

Double
aprons

Flyer
Flyer
leg
Sliver can
(carded or
combed sli ver) Roving
Dr bobbin
Presser
arm
Bobbin
drive
nb
Flyer nf
drive

Figure 1.23 Diagram of a roving frame

There are three basic steps in the operation of the
roving frame – drafting, twisting, and winding. The
se basic steps are exactly the same as the basic st
eps required in spinning. Consequently, an underst
anding of the roving process will help us understan
d the spinning process to be discussed in the next
module.
The input to this roving frame is a drawn sliver (either
carded or combed) from the last drawing process. The
sliver is drafted by a roller drafting unit. Between the f
ront and back rollers (the drafting zone), the fibres pa
ss between the double aprons, which control the fibre
movement during drafting. The front nose of the doub
le aprons is set close to the front roller nip for good dr
afting performance. You may recall the concept of per
fect roller drafting, which requires that fibres in the dr
afting zone travel at the speed of back rollers until the
fibre leading ends reach the front roller nip. The doubl
e aprons travel at about the same speed as the back r
ollers, and they control the fibres until they reach the
front roller nip.
A small amount of twist (30 to 65 turns per meter) is in
serted into the drafted fibre strand via the rotation of th
e flyer. The bobbin (on a spindle) is driven at a speed di
fferent to that of the flyer. The different in bobbin and f
lyer speeds allows the slightly twisted fibre strand or ro
ving to be wound on the bobbin. If the rotations of the
bobbin and the flyer are synchronised, the roving will n
ot be wound up onto the bobbin. The flyer arm through
which the roving passes helps to support the relatively
weak roving due to its low twist level.
In addition, a presser arm is attached to the lower end
of the hollow flyer leg (through which the roving runs)
. This presser arm guides the roving from the exit of t
he flyer leg to the roving package. The roving is wrap
ped two or three times around the presser arm. The fr
iction between the roving and the presser arm will incr
ease the roving tension at the winding on point. This
will give a compact roving package. A compact packag
e has more roving and is more stable as well.
On the roving bobbin, each coil of roving material is arra
nged very closely and almost parallel to one another (pa
rallel wind) so that as much material as possible is taken
up in the package. For this purpose, the bobbin rail (not
shown in the diagram) with the package on it moves up
and down steadily. The build-up of roving package leads
to an increase in the wound length of roving per coil. Th
e speed of the bobbin rail movement is reduced by a sm
all amount after each completed layer. With the increase
in package diameter (Dr), the bobbin rotation rate is als
o changed to maintain a constant difference between th
e surface speeds of the package and the flyer. This spee
d difference is the winding on speed and should be the
same as the speed at which the fibre strand is delivered
by the front drafting rollers.
The working principle of the flyer roving frame can be s
ummarised as below:
 roller drafting, delivers fibre strand at a constant
speed Vd
 flyer rotate at nf (constant) to twist the strand
nf
Twist level =
Vd
 bobbin rotates at nb (different to nf) to wind on t
he roving
- either bobbin lead or flyer lead, as long as t
here is a difference in rotational speed
- winding on speed V W =  Dr ( n f - nb )
( Dr= roving diameter on bobbin)
 Dr varies as the roving package builds up, change
nb to match VW with Vd

 fibre strand is supported by a flyer arm (no balloo

ning, best for thick weak strand)
- flyer speed is limited by the mechanical design.
► Quality issues in roving
Since ring spun yarns are produced directly from
rovings, the quality of the roving is very important. The
roving process is essentially a drafting process (not a
drawing process because there is no doubling). In fibre
drafting, fibre control is important. Good condition of
the double aprons, the right ratch setting (distance
between the front and back drafting rollers) are
important in ensuing good fibre control.

Rovings should be routinely sampled and tested for eve

nness. Particular attention should be paid to the spectro
gram to see if any drafting wave or periodic mass variat
ion exists in the rovings.
The small amount of twist inserted in the roving is nec
essary to ensure trouble-free transport of the roving p
ackage, smooth unwinding of the roving at the ring fra
me, and to prevent accidental drafting of the roving du
ring roving winding. This twist should be as small as pr
actically possible for two reasons. First, if the flyer rota
tion speed is fixed, a higher twist level means lower de
livery speed or lower production rate. Second, high twi
st in the roving may cause problem in drafting of the r
oving at the ring frame, because fibres may not be abl
e to slide past one another freely. The machine manuf
acturers will recommend the right level of twist for diff
erent fibre materials used.
Review questions
1.The key processing stages for cotton include
 opening and blending
 carding
 drawing
 combing
Describe the objectives and principle of each of these p
rocesses, using sketches if necessary and use about 20
0 words for each process.

2.Four bales of cotton, of 500 pounds each, are to be mix

ed together for the blow-room process. If the cotton fi
neness in these bales is, 3.8, 4.1, 4.4, and 3.3 micronai
re (mic., μg/in.) respectively, what would be the theore
tical fineness of the cotton in the mix? You need to sho
w your calculations.
3.On a draw-frame or drawing machine, why is it often n
ecessary to adjust the ratch setting according to the fi
bres to be processed?
4.With reference to the two-zone drawframe in figure 1.
18 and assuming a break draft of 1.5 and a main draft
of 4. If the average count of the eight input slivers is 1
2 ktex, what is the count of the single output sliver? If
the delivery (front) roller speed is 400 m/min, what w
ould be the approximate speed of the feed (back) rolle
rs?
5.With reference to fibre hooks, explain why two passag
es of drawing are necessary between cotton carding a
nd cotton combing. You should consider the following
points:
 Hook generation in carding
 Hook removal during drafting
 Effect of hook direction on combing
 Worsted Processing
Introduction
Long staple fibres are fibres longer than about 2 inch
es. Fibres such as merino wool, mohair and alpaca fi
bres are typical long staple fibres. Synthetic staples o
f similar length are long staple synthetic fibres. Long
staple fibres are processed on the worsted processin
g system mainly, to make worsted yarns.

This topic focuses on the principle and quality of wo

rsted processing of wool fibres.
Objectives

At the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Understand the principles and functions of worsted

processing from raw wool to top
 Appreciate the effect of raw wool quality on the
quality of tops
 Know the applications of the TEAM formula in top-
making
 Appreciate how fibre processing affects fibre
properties
Process overview
The worsted industry is more fragmented than the
cotton or short staple industry. The processing from
greasy wool to worsted yarn is often carried out
separately in different mills - early stage processing
(ESP) mill, top-making mill and spinning mill. The
early stage processor cleans the greasy wool. The
top-maker buys the clean wool from the early stage
processor and converts the wool into a top (a sliver
ready for worsted drawing and spinning). The spinner
sources the top from the topmaker and processes it
into worsted yarns.
Some mills engage in both early stage processing
and topmaking, others are vertically integrated and
do the whole processing from greasy wool to yarn. Ea
rly stage processing and top-making are also used sy
nonymously to refer to all the greasy wool to top proc
essing stages. Worsted processing utilises relatively fi
ne (< 27 micron) and long (> 45 mm) virgin wool an
d other long staple fibres. A typical sequence of worst
ed processing of wool is given in Figure 2.1.
 Raw Wool

Opening & Blending

Early stage processing

Scouring & Drying

SCOURED
WOOL
Worsted Carding

Intermediate Gillings
(usually 3)
Top-making
Combing

Finishing Gillings
(usually 2)
WORSTED
TOP
Drawings
(2 to 5)
Spinni ng
Spinning
WORSTED
SINGLES YARN
Figure 2.1 A typical worsted processing sequence for wool
Before wool processing can start, we need to first of all
source the raw wool. Sourcing the right raw wool is vital
and requires a good understanding between the raw wo
ol, wool top, worsted yarn and fabric. Even though raw
wool is the starting point for wool processing, the decisi
on to source a certain type of raw wool is governed by t
he intended end use of the fibre. Fabric requirements go
vern yarn requirements; yarn requirements govern top r
equirements, which in turn govern the raw wool specific
ations. This relationship is represented in Figure 2.2.
 Fabric Requirements

Yarn Requirements

Top Requirements

Raw Wool Specifications

Figure 2.2 End use governs raw wool purchase

Traditionally, translating the end use requirements to r
aw wool requirements calls for considerable skills and e
xperience. However, tools have been developed in rece
nt years to facilitate this translation in the worsted indu
stry. The notable examples of such tools are TEAM for
mulae and Yarnspec software developed by the CSIRO
Textile and Fibre Technology (formerly known as CSIR
O Division of Wool Technology).
The TEAM formulae and applications
► Introduction
The bulk of Australian wool clip is now scientifically
sampled and the samples are objectively measured
before sale for a range of properties. When objective
measurements of greasy wool started in Australia in
the early 70s, only Yield (i.e. the amount of clean fibre
that can be produced from the greasy wool),
Vegetable Matters (VM) and Mean Fibre Diameter (in
micron) were measured. While these measurements
are very important for raw wool sales, they can not be
used to adequately predict the processing performance
of the measured wool. In the late 70s, technology for
additional measurements of raw wool became
available.
These include measurements of staple length, staple
strength and position of break using the ATLAS instru
ment developed in CSIRO. The use of these measure
ment results has become an indispensable tool for mo
dern wool processing mills worldwide. There are three
major advantages associated with the use of objective
ly measured and specified wool:

 Maintaining control of the quality of wool delivered

to the mill,
 Monitoring processing performance and quality ma
nagement in the mill, and,
 Optimising wool blend selection and minimising raw
wool cost by taking advantage of the wool price diff
erentials.
To make use of these advantages, the wool processin
g mills should have some knowledge of the TEAM pre
diction formulae.

TEAM stands for Trials Evaluating Additional Measure

ments. These trials were conducted between 1981 an
d 1988 by the former Australian Wool Corporation, th
e Australian Wool Testing Authority Ltd (AWTA Ltd) a
nd the CSIRO Division of Wool Technology (now know
n as CSIRO Textile and Fibre Technology). Over 20 mi
lls in 12 different countries were involved in the trails.
As a result of these trials, a series of prediction formul
ae (known as the TEAM formulae) were released, whic
h can be used to predict the processing performance o
f fully measured wool in terms of the following:

- Hauteur
- CV of Hauteur
- Barbe
- Romaine
Hauteur and Barbe are two different measures of the a
verage fibre length. Their calculations may be explaine
d with the simple case of two fibres indicated in figure
2.3. The average length of these two fibres may be dif
ferent, depending on how we calculate it.
A1 A2

L1 Fibre 1 L2
Fibre 2

Figure 2.3 A simplified example for calculating the mean fibre length
 L1  L 2
Numerical mean fibre length : L N 
2
A1 L1  A2  L 2
Cross sec tion biased mean fibre length ( Hauteur) : H 
A1  A2
Weight biased mean fibre length ( Barbe) :
(   A1  L1)  L1  (   A2  L 2)  L 2 A1 L12  A2  L 2 2
B 
(   A1  L1)  (   A2  L 2) A1 L1  A2  L 2
where  is fibre density.

For example, if L1 = 60 mm, L2 = 80 mm, A1 = 300

m2, A2 = 400 m2 , then the above calculations will gi
ve: Ln = 70 mm, H = 71.4 mm, B = 72.8 mm.
The numerical mean length is the true average length o
f the fibres. But it is difficult to obtain in practice. Haute
ur length has been the most commonly used in the wor
sted industry. It can be easily obtained from commercia
l instruments such as the Almeter and WIRA fibre lengt
h meter.

Romaine is the term used in the worsted industry to des

cribe the amount of noil produced during the combing p
rocess, expressed as a percentage of the total (noil and
combed sliver).

These prediction formulae can be applied to any combin

g wool with full objective measurements, whether that
be individual lots or entire consignments, of wholly mea
sured Australian wool. Computer softwares have also be
en developed to assist with the calculations of the predi
cted results.
The general formula for Hauteur
As discussed above, Hauteur is the (cross section
biased) mean length of fibres in the wool top (a top is
a sliver of parallel fibres, obtained after the processes
of scouring, carding and combing of greasy wool). It is
normally measured by using an instrument called
Almeter. Hauteur value has a significant effect on top
price and the subsequent yarn properties. Hauteur has
traditionally been estimated subjectively by wool
buyers and processors.
 However, the TEAM project has demonstrated that the
theoretical Hauteur value may be predicted from meas
urements on raw wool according to the following gener
al formula:

H = 0.52 L + 0.47 S + 0.95 D - 0.19 M* - 0.45 V - 3.5

where H = Predicted Hauteur (mm)

L = Mean Staple Length (mm)
S = Mean Staple Strength (N/ktex)
D = Mean Fibre Diameter (micron)
M* = Adjusted Percentage of Middle Breaks (%)
3.5 = A Constant
NB 1: The value of M* is determined from the percentage of stapl
es which broke in the middle portion (PM) as displayed on an A
WTA Test Certificate for Staple Length and Strength as follows:

for PM values between 0 to 45% then M* = 45

for PM values between 46 - 100% then M* = PM

For example, if a consignment has objective measurements of

Mean Staple Length (90mm), Mean Staple Strength (40 N/kte
x), Mean Fibre Diameter (21 microns), adjusted Percentage of
Middle Breaks (50%), and Mean VM Base (2.0%), then the
Hauteur predicted from the general formula is:

H = 0.52 * 90 + 0.47 * 40 + 0.95 * 21 - 0.19 * 50 - 0.45 * 2.0

- 3.5 = 71.7 (mm)
NB 2: The TEAM formula for predicting Hauteur is based
on the processing results of 545 consignments combe
d at 20 different mills worldwide. Raw wool test data f
or the consignments fell into the following ranges:

Mean Staple Length 59 - 123 mm

Mean Staple Strength 23 - 60 N/ktex
Mean Fibre Diameter 17 - 31 microns
VM Base 0.1 - 10.0%

Application of the above formula to data which falls o

utside these ranges should be treated with caution.
The mill adjustment factor( 工厂修正因数 )
All wool processing mills are different. They may
use different raw materials and have different pr
ocessing machinery installed. While the general f
ormula for Hauteur gives a satisfactory general p
rediction for mills, as adjustment to reflect perfor
mance for individual mills are often needed, parti
cularly if a mill produces tops that are consistentl
y longer or shorter than the length predicted by
the general formula. The TEAM prediction repres
ents the world average of processing performanc
e.
The constant (-3.5) in the TEAM formula can be adjuste
d when a mill has monitored the processing performanc
e of 10 to 15 consignments. The mean value of the diff
erence between the Hauteur predicted by the TEAM for
mula and the actual Hauteur achieved can be calculated
. This mean value then becomes the "Mill Correction Fa
ctor" and is added or subtracted from the constant in th
e TEAM formula.

If changes are made to the mill processing conditions, s

uch as the installation of new machinery, differences wil
l be expected and alterations to the Mill Correction Fact
or will be necessary. It is also worth noting that the Mill
Adjustment Factors are commercially sensitive, individu
al traders are unlikely to be advised of them by the com
missioning combers.
An example of calculating a Mill Correction Factor is giv
en in Table 2.1 below:
Processors can also calculate their own tailor-made 'm
ill specific prediction formula' using a regression equat
ion based on the greasy wool characteristics found to
be the most important for the mill. Any standard com
puter package containing regression analysis can do t
his. However, it must be stressed that new formulae s
hould only be developed on large databases. When a
small database is available, the above approach for ca
lculating the Mill Correction Factor should suffice.
TEAM formulae for the predictions of CV of Hauteu
r, Romaine & Barbe
Besides the formula for the prediction of Hauteur, the T
EAM projects also developed prediction formulae for the
Coefficient of Variation of Hauteur, the Romaine and the
Barbe.
The CV of Hauteur (CVH) is an important feature of the
top length distribution, since it may affect the subseque
nt drafting and spinning performances. Romaine is the t
erm used to describe the quantity of noil expressed as a
percentage in relation to the combined quantity of top a
nd noil. It reflects the combing efficiency. Barbe is a wei
ght biased measurement of fibre length in the top and is
not as widely used as Hauteur.
The three prediction formulae are:

CVH = 0.12 L - 0.41 S - 0.35 D + 0.20 M* + 49.3

Romaine = (-0.11) L - 0.14 S - 0.35 D + 0.94 V + 2
7.7
Barbe (B) = 0.73 L + 0.32 S + 0.96 D - 0.51 V - 0.0
86 M* - 5.3

The symbols L, S, D, M* and V are as previously defin

ed for TEAM Hauteur Formula. The above three formul
ae can also be adjusted to any particular mill in the sa
me way as the TEAM Hauteur Formula, by adding or su
btracting a mill adjustment factor to the constants, whe
n appropriate.
It is also worth noting that the TEAM formulae have
been developed for general use and therefore do not
take into account variations in processing performanc
e between and within specific mills. If the predictions
are outside the following ranges, care must be taken i
n interpreting the prediction results:

Hauteur: Less than 55 mm and greater than 80 mm

CVHa: Less than 40% and greater than 55%
Romaine* Less than 3% and greater than 12%
In summary, the TEAM project has demonstrated the im
portance of additional measurements on raw wool. With
out these additional staple measurements, the prediction
of Hauteur and Romaine are not as accurate and it is im
possible to predict CVHa or other top length distribution
specifications important to the spinner. Many topmakers
and spinners worldwide are willing to pay premiums to h
ave their raw wool measured for staple length, strength
and position of break. Wool users, whether mills, export
ers, or traders, should maintain a record of the greasy w
ool measurement data and the difference between the p
rocessing characteristics predicted by the TEAM formulae
and those actually achieved for each processing consign
ment. By doing this, a 'mill specific' database can be buil
t and used to improve the predictions for that mill.
Applications of TEAM formulae
The TEAM formulae have a number of applications. The
major ones include assisting mill quality control and raw
wool specification.

When a wool processing mill uses fully measured Austra

lian wool, the mill performance can be monitored with t
he help of TEAM formulae. For instance, the differences
between actual and predicted Hauteur of the tops prod
uced in a mill can be plotted on a time-series graph. By
setting boundary limits for the size of the deviations, a
control chart can be established to indicate whether the
mill's topmaking process is 'in control'.
Another impartant application of TEAM is in assisting wi
th raw wool specification. As mentioned in the overview
, producing the right worsted yarn requires the right top
s, which in turn require the right raw wool. To explain t
his point, let's assume that we (a spinner) need to spin
2/52 Nm weaving yarns for a fabric manufacturer. The
question is what is the right raw material for efficient sp
inning of this yarn?
To answer this question, we need to get the right tops fi
rst. The two critical parameters for a wool top are the a
verage fibre diameter and length. Determining the avera
ge fibre diameter is relatively easy, because the fibre sh
ould be fine enough to ensure adequate average numbe
r of fibres in yarn cross section. As discussed in the mod
ule on yarn evenness, the minimum number of fibres in
the cross section of a worsted yarn should be about 40.
Below this limit, yarn quality drops rapidly and spinning
becomes inefficient due to increased ends-down. Table
2.2 gives the approximate diameter range used in major
ity of commercial weaving and knitting yarns, and the c
orresponding average number of fibres in yarn cross sec
tion.
So for a 52/2 Nm weaving yarn, if we wish to h
ave 40 fibres on average in the singles yarn cro
ss section, then the average diameter of the wo
ol should be:

917 19.2
D2  ,
40

D  21 ( micron )
Now that the average fibre diameter is decided, the
appropriate Hauteur (mean fibre length) of the top is
needed. For this purpose, we may check previous rec
ord as to the likely Hauteur value for a given fibre dia
meter (micron) processed on our machinery. In the a
bsence of previous record, experience values given in
Table 2.3 can be used as a starting point.
From this Table, a Hauteur value of at least 68 to 6
9 mm is necessary for the 21 micron wool. If our m
achinery is in good condition, the minimum Hauteur
can be used. Otherwise, higher Hauteur values sho
uld be used to ensure efficient spinning. For the cur
rent example, we can set the Hauteur value at 70
mm.
By now we know that to spin a 2/52 Nm weaving yarn,
the top specifications should have an average micron
value of 21, and a Hauteur value of 70 mm. The next
step is to translate these values into raw wool specific
ations. Again determining the micron of the raw wool
is the first necessary step. In a typical top-making pro
cess, it is normal that the average fibre diameter incre
ases by about 0.3 micron after top-making, the reaso
n for this is briefly discussed in the section on combin
g. Again an individual mill's past performance should
be looked at in terms of diameter increase (occasional
ly, fibre diameter increase can be up to 1 micron). Ke
eping this in mind, the average diameter of the raw w
ool should be finer than that of the top.
We can use 20.7 micron for this example. Now that th
e average micron for the raw wool is determined, we n
eed to know other raw wool characteristics, such as st
aple length, staple strength etc. This is where the TEA
M formulae play an important role. Using the TEAM for
mulae, we can play with different combinations of valu
es for the parameters in the TEAM prediction formula f
or Hauteur, such as different staple length, staple stre
ngth, mid breaks etc, to get the right Hauteur value (7
0 mm in this example).
One possible combination is:
Mean fibre diameter (D): 20.7 micron (already determined)
Mean staple length (L): 87 mm
Mean staple strength (S): 40 N/tex
Vegetable matter base (V): 1%
Percentage of mid breaks: 50%
Using the TEAM formula for Hauteur,

H = 0.52 L + 0.47 S + 0.95 D - 0.19 M* - 0.45 V -

3.5

H = 0.52 x 87 + 0.47 x 40 + 0.95 x 20.7 - 0.19 x 50 -

0.45 x 1 - 3.5 = 70.3 (mm)
It should be pointed out here that the Hauteur valu
e predicted by the TEAM equation is an average val
ue. This means half of the actual Hauteur values ma
y fall above the prediction, and the other half fall bel
ow prediction. In other words, there is a 50% proba
bility for the actual Hauteur to be less than that req
uired. This is not an acceptable situation. In practice
, it is common to ensure that the raw wool purchase
d will perform better than predicted, so that there is
only about 5% chance of not meeting the requireme
nt.
 It should also be pointed out though that in addition to
average fibre diameter and fibre length, fibre diameter a
nd length variations, short fibre content in the top, are al
so important considerations. Furthermore, the amount of
noil produced during combing is another important consi
deration. The value of combing noil is only about 30% of
the value of a top. If we apply the TEAM formulae for Ha
uteur CV and for Romaine to our example, we get:
CVH = 0.12 L - 0.41 S - 0.35 D + 0.20 M* + 49.3
= 0.12 x 87 - 0.41 x 40 - 0.35 x 20.7 + 0.20 x 50 + 49.3
= 46.1 (%)

Romaine = (-0.11) L - 0.14 S - 0.35 D + 0.94 V + 27.7

= (- 0.11) x 87 - 0.14 x 40 - 0.35 x 20.7 + 0.94 x 1 + 27.7
= 6.2%
The CV of Hauteur (CVH) may affect drafting performanc
e. Too high a CVH may lead to poor evenness of yarns.
For this reason, the experiences have shown that CVH v
alue should be less than 50%. The 46.1% CVH for our e
xample is below this figure. If we wish to have a lower C
VH than 46.1%, we can change some parameter in the
CVH formula, bearing in mind that any change will also a
ffect the predicted Hauteur and Romaine values. As indic
ated earlier, computer packages are available to assist w
ith these calculations.

On the basis of this information, a specification of the ra

w wool required for producing the 2/52 Nm weaving yar
n can be worked out. With a proper specification, we will
get the right raw materials. Once we get the right raw m
aterials, we can start the processing. The first processing
stage is scouring, which is discussed next.
Scouring( 洗毛 )
A number of processes are carried out in a scouring mil
l, including:
 preparation of wool for scouring by opening and bl
ending,
 scouring itself, and,
 drying of scoured wool.

Raw wool contains a number of impurities. Some of the

impurities are removed in scouring, others are removed
in further processing. Table 2.4 lists the impurities that
are found in raw wool, and the ways of removing these
impurities. Figure 2.4 gives the average compositions of
Australian merino and crossbred fleeces.
Figure 2.4 Average composition of a Merino fleece (a) and Australian
crossbred (b) (Humphries 1996, p.90 [courtesy of International Wool
Secretariat])
The main objectives of scouring are:
 To remove various impurities (grease, suint, minera
l) from wool in such a way that the scoured wool is
clean, full and open (with little felting of wool).
 To leave a small amount (about 0.5%) of residual g
rease on the wool to facilitate further mechanical pr
ocessing.
Wool grease and suint are the key impurities removed
during scouring in the so called aqueous emulsion sco
uring process using detergent and hot water. Grease c
an also be removed by dissolving in organic solvent us
ing the solvent scouring process. But before we talk a
bout the actual scouring processes, we need to unders
tand the chemistry of these impurities.
► The chemistry of impurities( 杂质 )
Suint
Suint consists of potassium salts of the various lower f
atty and amino acids, plus some inorganic salts. Like t
he table salt used for cooking, suint is soluble in water
, particularly warm water (~ 30oC). So removal of suin
t in aqueous scouring is not a problem.

 Grease/Wax
Grease is a mixture of higher fatty acids (CnHmCOOH,
or RCOOH) and alcohols. There is about 2 - 15% free f
atty acid in raw grease. At pH > 9, free fatty acid can
be saponified (turned into soap by decomposition with
alkali). The Saponifying (soap making) process is indic
ated below:
Na2CO3 + 2H2O ---> 2NaOH + H2CO3
NaOH + RCOOH ---> H2O + RCOONa (soap!)

Grease has a relatively low melting point (38 to 43oC).

In aqueous scouring, it is important to raise the liquor
temperature above this value to facilitate grease remo
val. Since grease usually forms a stable film around fib
re surface. The attraction between grease and wool n
eeds to be reduced to dislodge grease from fibre surfa
ce. In aqueous emulsion scouring, this is achieved wit
h the help of scouring agents such as detergent
  Vegetable matter (VM)( 草杂 )
Vegetable matter is cellulose material. Scouring rem
oves very little vegetable matter from wool. A small
amount of VM is removed during the pre-scour ope
ning, and the rest is removed in the post-scour card
ing and combing.
► The scouring agents( 洗涤剂 )
 Detergent (Natural or Synthetic)
Detergents are surfactants or surface-active agents. S
urfactant molecules have a hydrophilic head and a hyd
rophobic tail as indicated in figure 2.5 below.

Hydrophobic tail Hydrophilic

head
Fig. 2.5: The molecule of a surfactant with a hydrophilic head and a
hydrophobic tail

In the presence of an interface (eg. air/water, grease/

water), the surfactant molecules are adsorbed at the in
terface due to differing polarities of head and tail. This
then lowers the interfacial surface tension. The import
ance of reducing interfacial surface tension in scouring
will be discussed later.
The two main types of detergent are natural soap and s
ynthetic detergent.

Natural soap is made from action of alkali with a fatty ac

id. It can also be created by the saponifying process in s
couring, as indicated in the section on the chemistry of i
mpurities. The water for wool scouring should be soft w
ater. Synthetic detergents are not destroyed by lime salt
s. They can be used under neutral pH (so less wool dam
age) but scouring is more efficient in slight alkalinity. Sy
nthetic detergents have very high detergent efficiency, e
ven at low concentrations (when scouring fabrics in the
finishing stage, this may be a drawback. Because a thor
ough degreasing often leads to a worsening fabric handl
e. Most modern scouring mills use synthetic detergents r
ather than natural soaps.
  Water
The water used in aqueous scouring should be of mini
mum hardness, particularly when natural soap is used
as the detergent. Hard water containing calcium salts
(lime) will reduce the effectiveness of soap:

soap + calcium salts (lime) = lime soap (insoluble!)

The insoluble lime soap can adhere firmly to wool and

cause difficulty in the subsequent carding, combing an
d dyeing.
Aqueous wool scouring consumes a large quantity of
water. One kilo of greasy wool may require up to 20 lit
res of water for scouring. If a scour has a capacity of
1,200 kg/hour, then a staggering 24,000 litres of wate
r will be consumed in every hour of the scour's workin
g life. Researchers and industrialists have put consider
able effort into reducing water consumption in scourin
g and treating scouring effluent.
Alkali( 碱 )
The addition of alkali adds to the efficiency of scouring
. It is usually in the form of sodium carbonate (soda a
sh) rather than caustic alkali, since caustic alkali attack
s wool. As mentioned before, alkali reacts with the fatt
y acid (in grease) to produce soap in scouring.
► The principle of aqueous emulsion( 水乳状液 ) s
couring
As mentioned earlier, aqueous scouring removes
suint and grease mainly from wool, and suint removal
is relatively easy, because it is soluble in water.
Grease removal is more complicated, and this section
focuses on how grease gets removed from wool in
scouring. The role played by detergent is highlighted
in this section. Generally speaking, there are three
stages involved in grease removal during aqueous
scouring.
Stage 1

This stage has the following functions:

- Wet out greasy wool
- Raise temperature above grease melting point
- Add alkali (demands of wool, saponification,
optimum scouring pH)
- Deliver detergent molecules to fibres by liquor flow
and diffusion
Wetting is the first necessary step for aqueous scouring
. The more water molecules on fibre surface, the bette
r the fibre wetting. How easily a greasy wool can get w
etted depends upon the fibre/water/air interfacial surfa
ce tensions. Ironically, the wettability of water on wool
textiles is quite poor. When a drop of water is placed o
n a surface of wool fibres, the water drop does not spr
ead out on the surface. The attraction between molecu
les in the water drop is quite strong, which tends to ke
ep the water molecules together in a ball shape. To inc
rease the wettability of water, its surface tension need
s to be reduced so that the water can spread out on th
e fibre surface to achieve good wetting of the fibre.
Figure 2.6 depicts poor and good wetting behaviour o
f water on a surface.

(poor wetting) (good wetting)

Figure 2.6 Poor and good wetting behaviour of water on a surface

.
In relation to scouring greasy wool, we are looking at a
wool/liquor/air system as shown in figure 2.7 below

Figure 2.7 Wetting the wool fibre with a drop of liquor - the wool/liquor/air system

In equlibrium, the three interfacial surface tensions sho

uld be balanced. We have
T wa - T Wl
T wa = T Wl + T al * cos , cos = .
T al
This simple relationship can be used to explain how dete
rgent helps the wetting process. Detergents are surfacta
nts, which have the power of reducing surface tension.
When detergent is added to the liquor, it greatly reduces
the interfacial surface tension between the liquor and its
contact surfaces, such as air and wool in this case. Ther
efore, with the addition of detergent, both Twl and Tal
will be reduced. According to the above equations, shou
ld decrease when Twl and Tal reduce. A lower means th
e water drop is more spread out on the wool fibre, henc
e better wetting. Therefore, from the change in , we can
tell how detergents help to wet the wool fibres. In house
hold washing, if you add detergent to the water in the w
ashing machine and then put the clothing items in, the c
lothing items will get immersed into the water more quic
kly than when there is no detergent in the water.
Stage 2
This is the key stage, and has the following functions:
 Form surface film of detergent molecules
 Gather grease into droplets
 Sweep droplets from fibre by liquor flow
In this stage, we are looking at a grease/wool/liquor syst
em as shown in figure 2.8 below.

Figure 2.8 Removal of grease from wool - the grease/wool/liquor system

Again, in equlibrium, we have

T wg - T wl
T wl = T wg + T gl * cos(180   ), cos  = .
T gl
In the presence of detergent (surfactant) in the liquor, b
oth Twl and Tgl will be reduced. According to the above
equations, cosф should increase (and ф should decreas
e) when Twl and Tgl reduce. A gradually reducing ф wo
uld mean the grease is rolling up as droplets. When ф b
ecomes zero, the grease ball would come off the wool fi
bre easily with the help of liquor flow. When the grease
droplets are detached from the wool, they are surround
ed by surfactant molecules. The hydrophobic tails of the
surfactant molecules will stick to the grease, while the h
ydrophilic heads will stay in the liquor. In addition, the li
ke-charged hydrophobic heads on the surfaces of the gr
ease droplets will be mutually repulsive. This keeps the
grease droplets separate and suspended in the liquor, w
ithout aggregating and re-depositing back onto the fibre
surface.
The grease removal process can also be described wit
hout using the force balance equations given above.
When the scouring liquor containing surfactant molec
ules comes in contact with grease particles on fibre su
rface, the water-hating tails of surfactant molecules w
ill compete for places in the grease, because they do
n’t like water molecules in the liquor. The competition
gets tougher and tougher as more and more surfacta
nt molecules try to stick their tails into the oil. They o
nly way of easing the tension of competition is to crea
te more surface of grease, and the only way of doing
this is by breaking the grease apart and lifting the gre
ase away from fibre surface gradually.
Once removed from the fibre surface, the grease will be s
urrounded by the surfactant molecules with the tails insi
de the grease. In the mean time, the fibre surface origin
ally occupied by the grease will now be occupied by the
surfactant molecules, again with their tails sticking to the
fibres and heads inside the liquor. The like-charged head
s on the fibre surface and on the grease surface repel ea
ch other so they try to stay away from each other, thus
preventing the grease from being re-deposited on the fib
re surface. Similarly, the grease particles broken apart b
y the surfactant will stay apart as well. Therefore, after s
couring, the scouring liquor becomes an emulsion of sus
pended oil or grease particles, which can be easily remo
ved by rinsing. For this reason, aqueous scouring is also
known as emulsion scouring or aqueous emulsion scouri
ng. In other words, surfactant helps to emulsify the oil o
r grease to facilitate its removal. Similar principle applies
to house-hold washing.
The processes of grease or oil removal with surfactant
are illustrated below in Figure 2.9.
Water only With surfactant

grease

Fibre

Figure 2.9 The process of grease removal from wool

Stage 3

This is the final stage which has the following functions:

- Remove excess detergent and alkali from wool
- Remove contaminants from liquor

Rinsing with fresh water achieves the first function. Re

moving contaminants from liquor requires complex effl
uent treatment system. In fact, a well-known dilemma
of wool scouring is the environment friendliness-versu
s-cost compromise.
 ► Commercial aqueous scouring systems
1.The basic configuration
In a typical process of aqueous emulsion scouring, 5 or
6 scouring bowls are used. Figure 2.10 gives a
simplified representation of a 6-bowl aqueous wool
scouring process. Scouring agen ts

Greasy Scoured
wool in wool to
dryer
Bo wl 1 Bowl 2 Bowl 3 Bowl 4 Bowl 5 Bowl 6
(De suint) (Scou r) (Scou r) (Scour) (Rin se) (Rin se) Fresh water in

Settling
tank

Centrifuge

Grease Recovery
Effluent Treatment
Figure 2.10 A 6-bowl aqueous scouring process
The first de-suint bowl is used to remove water-soluble
contaminants such as suint (or sheep sweat) from the
wool. The next three bowls contain hot water, detergen
t and alkali for grease removal, while the remaining two
bowls contain clean water for rinsing. Fibres are propell
ed through each bowl and there is a pair of squeeze roll
ers between the adjacent bowls. Because of the scale st
ructure on the wool surface, excessive agitation of wool
during scouring will lead to felting of wool, which in tur
n will lead to increased fibre damage during the subseq
uent processes, carding process in particular.
 Fresh water is introduced from the last bowl for rinsing
, and flows backward to the scouring bowls ('counter-c
urrent' flow). The water temperature in the three scouri
ng bowls is usually set at about 55 to 60OC, with the te
mperature in the rinsing bowls set at about 45 to 50 OC
.

2.Scouring bowls
Three types of scouring bowls used in the industry are
given in figure 2.11.

(a) Conventional long bowl

 (b) WRONZ Mini-bowl

(c) Fleissner suction drums

The conventional long bowl uses dunkers to push the wo
ol sheet into the scouring liquor. The ranks then propel t
he sheet of wool through the bowl, dislodging the miner
al dirt from the fibres in the process. The scratching of fi
bres against the perforated screen (the false bottom) als
o helps dirt removal. There is considerable agitation of
wool during scouring, which tends to increase the level
of wool felting. As mentioned earlier, wool felting is very
undesirable, because it leads to increased fibre breakag
e in the subsequent processes such as carding.

The WRONZ mini-bowl is the most widely used bowl desi

gn. The agitation on the wool sheet in the bowl is not as
severe as in the conventional long-bowl. In addition, the
hopper shaped bowl facilitates fast settling of the dirt in
the bottom of the bowl.
The Fleissner suction drum type is the gentlest of the thre
e. Each bowl has several perforated rotating drums half i
mmersed in the scour bath. The scouring liquor inside ea
ch drum is pumped into circulation loop and then back to
the bowl. When the wool sheet enters the bowl, it is push
ed into the liquor by a rotating dunker (not shown in fig.
2.11c) first. The sheet of wool then gets held against the
suction drum surface by in-flowing liquor and released as
it emerges at liquor surface on the other side. The sheet
of wool then flows to the next drum. Since there is little
mechanical agitation on the wool, wool felting is minimise
d during scouring. This is the biggest advantage of the su
ction drum system. But the reduced agitation also means
less dirt removal during scouring. This is the well-known c
leanliness-versus-entanglement compromise in wool scou
ring. Reduced entanglement often means reduced cleanli
ness as well.
In addition to scouring bowls, the squeeze rollers are al
so very important cleaning mechanisms. Inadequate rol
ler pressure will lead to scoured wool with a high level
of residual grease. Poor opening of the wool before sco
uring will have a similar effect. Fibre opening and blend
ing before scouring is discussed in the following section
.
► Fibre opening( 开毛 ) and blending( 混和 ) before s
couring
Most consignments of greasy wool are made up of a
number of farm lots or inter-lots. Each lot sold at
auction should have a minimum number of 4 bales of
greasy wool. On average, each bale weighs about 180
kg. The properties of wool in the different lots are
usually quite different. Blending of the greasy wool in
different lots is therefore one of the most important
functions in the whole topmaking process. The blend
should be prepared to ensure a good mix across all the
different lots in a given consignment.
As an example, let's assume that we have a consignmen
t of 50 bales of greasy wool, consisting of 4 lots of wool
from different farms. It would be very bad practice to fe
ed the lots of wool one after another, because fibre pro
perties differ from lot to lot. One way of mixing the lots
and feeding the bales of wool to a scour line is sketched
in figure 2.12. Other ways of mixing and feeding the op
ening process has also been used to minimise the irregu
larity in the final product.
 Lot 1
(5 bales)

Lot 2
(20 bales)

Opening Scouring

Lot 3
(15 bales)

Lot 4
(10 bales)

Figure 2.12 Blending of greasy wool bales before scouring

The typical opening systems used are the feed hopper
and drum opener, as indicated in figure 2.13.

(a) Feed hopper (b) Double drum opener

Figure 2.13 Pre-scouring fibre opening systems (Stewart

1985, p.5, p.7)

A usual combination of the opening systems is:

Feed Hopper 1 Double Drum Opener Feed Hopper 2

Scouring
With the feed hopper 1, greasy wool from different bale
s is placed on the feed apron in the hopper, which forwa
rds the wool to the spiked apron. The spikes pick up tuft
s of wool and move them upwards. Upon meeting the c
omb drum, large tufts are separated into smaller ones a
nd some small tufts continue with the spiked apron until
doffed off by the doffer drum, others are returned by th
e comb drum to the hopper. The retuned tufts will mix
with others already in the hopper, so some blending is a
lso achieved with the feed hopper opening system.

The double drum opener has two toothed drums betwee

n which fibres are opened. There are usually perforated
screens underneath each drum, which allow dirt and dus
t to fall away. So apart from fibre opening, some cleanin
g is also achieved with the double drum opener. Feed h
opper 2 will deliver a uniform, opened layer of greasy w
ool to the scour.
It is worth pointing out that all tri-pack wool (three bal
es compressed into one for ease of storage and transp
ort) and some farm bales which have had prolonged st
orage need to be warmed up prior to scouring. Even fo
r ordinary bales, cold climates may warrant bale warmi
ng before processing. Warming the bales will loosen an
d open fibres in the bale, which leads to better scourin
g and reduced fibre breakage. Bale warming is achieve
d in a number of ways, the most popular being steam o
r hot-air heating. A recent development is to heat the b
ales with the microwave technique.
► Drying of scoured wool
The wool leaving the last pair of squeeze rollers has a
moisture content of about 40%, or a regain of about
66% ( regain  mass
mass of water
of dry wool
)It is typical to dry the
scoured wool to around 8 to 12% regain.

There are three main types of dryers available for wool

- suction drum dryer, conveyer dryer, and Unidryer.
They use either gas or steam for heating. Figure 2.14
shows a side view of the three dryers.

Figure 2.14 Side view of wool dryers (Teasdale 1996, p.

97)
1.Suction drum dryer
Upon entering the dryer, the sheet of wet wool is held on
rotating perforated drums by suction created by fans on the end
of each drum. An internal baffle in each drum blocks half of its
circumference so that wool is only held on half of its surface by
the suction. As the drums rotate, the sheet of wool is passed
from drum to drum so that the heated air passes in alternate
directions through the wool for even drying. There is a 'counter-
current' airflow inside the dryer. In other words, the direction of
air flow is opposite to the direction of wool flow. Fresh (cool) air
is fanned in from the delivery end, which cools the dried wool at
exit. The air is recirculated to the drums via heating batteries.
As the heated air is drawn through the wool, it carries moisture
with it to dry the wool. The air is then heated again and drawn
through the layer of wool towards the wool inlet, where the wet
air is finally exhausted to the atmosphere. Drum dryers usually
have between 4 to 8 drums.
2.Conveyer dryer
This is the traditional hot air dryer where the sheet of
wool is carried through on a perforated conveyer.
Similar to the drum dryer, fresh (ccol) air is introduced
at the wool outlet to cool the exiting wool. This air is
then heated and blown down through the layer of
wool, carrying moisture with in to dry the wool. The
now moist air is then heated again and blown through
the wool layer towards the wool inlet, where the wet
air is finally exhausted to the atmosphere.
Unidryer

This dryer was developed at the University of New Sout

h wales. It carries wool between two porous conveyer b
elts. The conveyer belts pass next to a perforated scree
n. Again there is a 'counter-current' airflow inside the dr
yer, with the fresh air coming into the dryer from wool
outlet and wet air exhausted at the wool inlet. The direc
tion of airflow in the two chambers is opposite so that
wool is dried evenly from both sides. The unidryer is a
powerful dryer and is much smaller than the other two.
Worsted Carding
The same adage - "well carded is half spun", as quoted
in the cotton carding section also applies to worsted car
ding. Carding is a vital process in the fibre to yarn proce
ssing chain.
► Objectives
The main objectives of worsted carding are:
-to disentangle and align the scoured wool,
-to remove the vegetable matters left in the scoured wo
ol,
-to intimately mix the fibres, and,
-to deliver the carded fibres in a continuous rope-like for
m called a card sliver.
Owing to the scale structure on wool surface, it is una
voidable that some degree of fibre entanglement occu
rs during aqueous wool scouring. Carding is the only p
rocess that can untangle and individualise the fibres. A
fter scouring and drying, the vegetable matters still re
main in the wool. The bulk of these foreign matters ar
e removed in carding. Carding also achieves intimate
mixing of wool fibres, which is only possible with indivi
dualised fibres. Considerable fibre breakage occurs dur
ing carding, mainly because of the fibre entanglement.
To minimise fibre damage, adequate fibre preparation
between wool drying and carding is essential.
► Fibre preparation before carding
After the wool is scoured and dried, the moisture
content and total fatty matter (TFM) left in the wool
are checked. This will allow correct addition of
oil/water to facilitate wool carding. Usually the
scoured/dried wool is gently opened first by a simple
opener as shown in figure 2.15.
Beater
Doffer

Spiked
lattice Oil/water
(wool from spray
dryer)
Wool to
storage bin
via pneumatic
duct
Figure 2.15 A simple opener for scoured and dried wool
 A mixture of processing oil and water is sprayed on to
the wool, preferably at the delivery end just before the
wool enters the pneumatic transport ducts to the
storage bins. The wool is allowed to stand for a
minimum of 12 hours in the bins to allow oil and water
to spread evenly throughout the wool before carding.
Insufficient moisture in the wool will cause static
problems during carding, while too much oil will cause
wool lapping on the card rollers.
► Roller-top card
Unlike the flat-top card used for carding cotton fibres
(or other staples of similar length to cotton), a roller-
top card is used for carding wool fibres. A simple roller-
top card is shown in figure 2.16.
 In the simple card depicted in figure 2.16, the broken
line represents the flow of fibres. The incoming fibres
are first picked up or 'licked in' by the teeth of the lick
erin or takerin.

Burr stripper
work er
beater

Feed Doffer
rollers comb
cylinder
Licker-in
Doffer

Transfer
roller

Figure 2.16 A simple roller-top card

As the name implies, a roller-top card has rollers,
rather than flats, on top of the cylinder. Roller-top
cards are relatively gentle on fibres, which is
important in minimising damage to the delicate fibres
such as wool. The rollers are clothed with metallic
teeth pointing to certain directions. As discussed in
cotton carding, the teeth direction, the relative speed
between two adjacent roller surfaces, and the rotating
direction of the roller surface govern the basic actions
(point-to-point carding or point-to-back stripping)
between the two adjacent rollers.
In the simple card depicted in figure 2.16, the broken li
ne represents the flow of fibres. The incoming fibres ar
e first picked up or 'licked in' by the teeth of the lickerin
or takerin. The sheet of fibres travels with the lickerin a
nd presents the relatively exposed vegetable matters
(VM) in the fibres to the flicking action of the beater for
removal. Between the lickerin and the transfer roller, a
point-to-back stripping action occurs and the sheet of fi
bres on the lickerin is stripped by the teeth of the trasn
fer roller. Another point-to-back stripping action occurs
between the cylinder and the transfer roller, which allo
ws the sheet of fibres to be stripped off the transfer roll
er by the cylinder teeth. The cylinder now carries the s
heet of fibres to the very important stripper/worker pair
.
The relative surface speed (V) here is: Vcylinder>Vstripper>Vw
orker. This, together with the tooth direction and the sur
face rotating direction as indicated in figure 2.16, gives
the following basic actions in the cylinder/worker/strip
per unit:

-Cylinder/stripper: point-to-back stripping action; cylin

der strips the stripper.

- Cylinder/worker: point-to-point working action; both

surfaces will grab some fibres to untangle them.

- Worker/stripper: point-to-back stripping action; strip

per strips the worker.
With this arrangement, the fibres carried by the cylinde
r will 'by-pass' the stripper and proceed to the working
(or carding) action of the cylinder/worker pair. This is
where much of the fibre untangling and alignment occu
r in the card. The fibres picked up by the worker will so
on meet the stripper and be stripped by the stripper. T
he stripper then returns these fibres to the cylinder for
further action. The fibres that are not picked by the wo
rker will continue their journey with on the cylinder surf
ace, until they reach the doffer. The doffer has a lower
surface speed than the cylinder, and a working or cardi
ng action happens between them. This would mean tha
t the fibres entering the cylinder/doffer zone is further
opened, and a fraction of the fibres will be picked up b
y the doffer teeth, and this sheet of fibre will then be st
ripped off the doffer surface by the rapidly oscillating d
offer comb.
The fibres not picked up by the doffer will stay on the
cylinder surface as 'recycled fibre'. The 'recycled fibres'
on the cylinder surface will soon meet with the 'fresh fi
bres' that have just been picked up by the cylinder fro
m the transfer roller. Together, the recycled and fresh
fibres are then presented to the cylinder/worker/stripp
er unit and the process repeats. The 'looping' of fibres
on the cylinder/worker/stripper unit and the recycled fi
bres meeting with fresh fibres on the cylinder are also
important for intimate fibre mixing. From this brief des
cription, we can see that the cyliner/worker/stripper u
nit achieves the important key objectives of fibre unta
ngling, fibre alignment, and fibre mixing. On a modern
worsted card, many such units are employed to ensure
sufficient fibre opening, aligning and mixing in carding.
Figure 2.17 shows a schematic diagram of a modern
worsted card.
Worker/stripper units

Worker
Burr
beater Stripper

Main cylinder
Feed Breast Doffer
(Sw if t)
rollers cylinder comb
Licker-in

Doffer

Morel roller
Transfer (usually 2)
roller

Figure 2.17 Diagram of worsted roller top card

A total of nine cylinder/worker/stripper units are employ
ed on the card to achieve the desired level of fibre openi
ng, aligning, and mixing. In addition, the worsted card is
often equipped with specially designed burr removal roll
ers (eg. Morel roller) and burr beaters to free the opene
d fibres from burrs and other vegetable matters. The mo
rel roller is clothed with special teeth, whose gaps are lar
ge enough to accommodate the fibres but are too small f
or the vegetable matter, so that the vegetable matter ca
n be beaten off by the bur beaters on top of the morel r
oller. The thin web of fibres removed from the doffer by
the doffer comb is usually condensed into a sliver or rop
e form, and deposited into a sliver can or coiler can for f
urther processing. Figure 2.17a shows a sketch of a slive
r can with coils of sliver inside.
► Important settings in carding
(1)Card loading or production rate
The theoretical production rate of a worsted card can
be calculated using the formula below:
2.9  MFD (micron)  Card width (m)  Swift speed (m / min)
Theoretical productionrate (kg / h) 
1,000

This is the production rate at 100% efficiency, and is

related to the mean fibre diameter (MFD), card width,
and the swift surface speed.
If the card is in good condition and set properly, it can
produce quality products at this theoretical production r
ate. Otherwise a lower rate is necessary to reduce fibre
breakage during carding. The usual way of checking car
d performance is to process the card slivers to tops, an
d examine the length characteristics of the tops on the
Almeter and calculate the coming yield and noil figures.
(2)Fresh fibre density (FFD)
Research at CSIRO has demonstrated that the density of
fresh fibres on the main cylinder (swift) has a major effe
ct on fibre breakage in the carding process. The fresh fi
bre density (FFD) is calculated using the formula below:
Pr oduction rate (kg / h) 1,000
Fresh Fibre Densty ( g / m 2 ) 
60  Swift speed ( m / min)  card width ( m)
By combining this equation with the formula for productio
n rate, we can derive the formula for theoretical fresh fi
bre density (FFDt):

2.9  MFD ( micron)

Theoretical fresh fibre density ( g / m )  2

60
 If the actual fresh fibre density is significantly higher t
han the theoretical fresh fibre density, considerable fib
re breakage may arise during carding. On the other ha
nd, if the actual fresh fibre density is kept below its the
oretical value, increasing the card production rate will
have little effect on the quality of the carded sliver. It i
s worth reiterating that the only way to confirm card p
erformance is to check the fibre length characteristics
on the Almeter and calculate combing yield and noil fig
ures at each different setting.
(3)Roller settings
The clearance between adjacent roller surfaces and the
relative surface speeds are important settings that
affect carding quality. The clearances gradually
decreases from the feed to delivery end of the card as
the fibre materials become thinner. The card
manufacturer will advise on the best settings for the
particular type of fibre being processed by its card.
Incorrect settings may reduce the mean fibre length,
and increase the number of neps in the carded sliver.

The reading material "The pressure on fibres in cardin

g" by Harrowfield, Eley and Robinson (1986), reports r
elevant research carried out at CSIRO.
 Like the cotton card, a properly set worsted card also generate
s a majority of trailing fibre hooks in the carded sliver, which ar
e then straightened in the gilling (drawing) processes following
carding. Despite of the best effort, fibre breakage and other les
s dramatic forms of fibre damage are unavoidable in carding. P
oor scouring leading to increased fibre entanglement, excessive
fresh fibre density, and poor lubrication are the main causes of
fibre breakage in carding. In addition, highly entangled balls of
fibres (called neps) are also generated in carding. Card surface
s with blunt teeth may lead to rolling of fibres between adjacen
t surfaces and create neps in the process. Grinding of card clot
hing to maintain sharpness of the teeth will reduce this proble
m. Another possible mechanism of nep formation in carding is t
he 'snap back' effect. In carding, many fibres are stretched at h
igh extension rates. When one fibre breaks, the broken end ma
y 'snap back' and entangle with neighbouring fibres to form ne
ps. Most of the broken short fibres plus the neps generated in
carding are subsequently removed as waste fibres (noils) in the
combing process. This is also why the combing yield and noil c
an reflect the performance of carding.
Preparatory Gillings( 预针梳 )
► Objectives
The main objectives of the gilling machine are to furth
er align the fibres in card sliver and to blend the sliver
s from different cards.

A gilling machine is also known as a gillbox, or simply

a gill.

As discussed before, most fibres in the card slivers ha

ve hooked ends, with the trailing hooks at a majority.
These hooks and other poorly aligned fibres should be
straightened out before combing to increase the avera
ge fibre length and reduce the percentage of noil duri
ng combing.
► Gilling process
Gilling is basically a roller drafting process in which
fibre movements are controlled by pins fixed on
moving pinned bars (faller bars). Figure 2.18 shows a
schematic of a gillbox with intersecting upper and
lower faller bars controlling fibre movement during
drafting. Such a gillbox is also called an intersecting
gillbox.

Figure 2.18 Schematic of an intersecting gillbox

(Grosberg and Iype 1999, p.14)
You may recall that perfect roller drafting requires fibre
s in the drafting zone travel at the speed of back rollers
until their leading ends reach the front roller nip, where
they get accelerated to the front roller speed instantly. I
n gilling, several slivers (eg. from different cards) are co
mbined as the input material, which is drafted to produ
ce a single sliver at the output. During drafting, the falle
r bars move at about the same speed as the back roller
s and the pins on the faller bars keep the fibres moving
at a similar speed. Once the leading end of a fibre gets
gripped by the nip of the front rollers, that fibre gets pu
lled through the pins on the faller bars and has its traili
ng end straightened. So each passage of gilling straight
ens fibre trailing ends mainly.
 The distance between the front roller nip and the closest faller
bar is called the front ratch setting. This setting is very importa
nt for gilling. If it is set too large, then many fibres in the critica
l region near the front rollers are not properly controlled by the
pinned faller bars during drafting. We already know that lack of
fibre control during drafting will lead to increased irregularity in
the drafted material. On the other hand, if the front ratch settin
g is too small, pulling the fibres through the pins on the faller b
ars may cause fibre breakage. In practice, the front ratch settin
g is set at about half of the average fibre length. Using this val
ue as a starting point, the final setting should be optimised bas
ed on sliver evenness results, particularly the spectrograms obt
ained from the Uster evenness tester. As discussed in the Modu
le on Yarn Evenness, the spectrograms allow us to identify the
presence of drafting faults such as drafting waves. If a drafting
wave is identified from the spectrogram, a closer front ratch set
ting should be used to improve fibre control and reduce the nu
mber of floating fibres during gilling.
► Three intermediate gillings
It is common practice in the worsted industry to have
three intermediate gillings between carding and combi
ng. You may ask why this is necessary. To answer this
question, we need to keep in mind the following three
points:

(1) Fibres in card slivers have a majority of trailing hooks

(2) There is a natural reversal of fibre ends between two
processing stages ('first-in-last-out')
(3) In feeding a worsted comb, fibres with leading hooks
tend to cause more fibre breakage in combing (note t
he difference between worsted combing and cotton co
mbing!)
Figure 2.19 shows the configuration of fibre hooks dur
ing gilling.

1st Gill 2nd Gill

Card

Can
Can

Comb 3rd Gill

Can Can

Figure 2.19 Fibre configurations from card to comb

1st Gill
The card produces fibres with a majority of trailing hooks. Whe
n the card sliver is deposited into a can and then taken out to f
eed the 1st gill, there is a reversal of fibre ends, so that the fibr
es entering the 1st gill have a majority of leading hooks. Becaus
e gilling straightens trailing hooks only, the fibres will emerge f
rom the 1st gill still with the leading hooks. Now the 1st gilled sli
ver is stored in a can and taken out again for the 2nd gilling ope
ration. The reversal of fibre ends mean that fibre entering the
2nd gill have a majority of trailing hooks, most of which are strai
ghtened during this 2nd gilling. So after the 2nd gilling, most fibre
s are straight except for a few which may still have some trailin
g hooks. After a further can storage and removal from the can,
the sliver now enters the 3rd gill with a few fibres with leading h
ooks, which can not be straightened and will persist to the 3rd g
illed sliver. But when the 3rd gilling sliver is stored in a can and t
aken out for combing, any remaining hooks in the sliver would
be trailing, which is fine as far as worsted combing is concerne
d. Feeding a worsted comb with leading hooks is likely to incre
ase fibre breakage during combing, as will be discussed in the f
ollowing section.
From figure 2.19, you may think that the 3rd gill has don
e nothing to the fibres. This is not quite true. In gilling
as in cotton drawing, there is a doubling function as wel
l. Many slivers are fed to a gill together, and there is a
doubling and blending function by each gill, which impr
oves the evenness of the gilled sliver.

Five intermediate gillings between worsted carding and

combing have been tried before, but the benefit is too
marginal to justify the cost for two extra gillings.

After the 3rd gilling, the slivers are ready for combing. C
ombing is discussed next.
Worsted Combing( 精梳 )
► Objectives
Combing is a critical step in worsted processing. Simil
ar to cotton combing, worsted combing achieves the o
bjectives of:

(a) removing short fibres, neps, and impurities

(collectively known as noils)
(b) further mixing and aligning fibres
(c) forming a continuous rope-like comb sliver

Since longer and cleaner wool fibres make better yarn

s, combing improves the yarn quality and combed yar
ns command a high price.
 • Combing process
A schematic diagram of a rectilinear worsted comb is sh
own in figure 2.20. Up to 32 carded and gilled slivers ma
y be fed to the comb via a pair of feed rollers and the fe
ed gill assembly. Like the cotton comb, worsted comb al
so runs in an intermittent fashion. In each cycle, the foll
owing actions are performed:

(1) Feeding a short distance of slivers to the comb

(2) Initial combing of fibre leading ends by the cylinder
comb or comb cylinder
(3) Final combing of fibre trailing ends by the intersector
comb or top comb
(4) Detaching the fully combed tuft and overlapping it
with previously combed ones
Figure 2.20 A side elevation of a worsted comb (Brearley 1964,
p50).
During the initial combing stage, the fibres are firmly gripped by
the nips or nipper jaws. Fibre leading ends protruding from the
nipper jaws are combed by the comb cylinder (also known as th
e circular comb). Fibre penetration of the pins is aided by a nipp
er brush (not shown in figure 2.20) attached to the upper nippe
r. In the initial combing process, short fibres, neps and impuritie
s are removed as noils by the comb cylinder, which itself is then
cleaned by the noil brush. If some fibres have large leading hoo
ks, there is a possibility for the leading hooks to be engaged by
the teeth on the comb cylinder and fibre breakage will occur as
a result. This is why it is preferable that no leading hooks exist i
n the feed stock. In contrast, the presence of leading hooks in t
he feed stock to cotton combs is normal, since there are only tw
o passages of drawing between cotton carding and combing. Th
e difference is that for short staple fibres such as cotton, the fib
re length is much shorter than long staples such as wool. Even i
f there are leading hooks, the extent of the hooks will be consid
erably smaller and the small hooks are unlikely to be engaged b
y the teeth of the comb cylinder to cause fibre breakage.
In the final combing by the intersector comb (also kno
wn as the top comb), the trailing ends not combed by t
he comb cylinder are combed. The short fibres, neps an
d impurities are held back by the intersector comb, and
will be removed in the next combing cycle. The noils or
combing noils (i.e. short fibres, neps and impurities) re
present combing waste. The value of noils is about one
third of that of tops, so any increase in the percentage
of noil is going to cost the topmaker large sum of mone
y. But an increase in noil is usually accompanied with a
n increase in the mean fibre length of the combed slive
r, because more short fibres are removed. This improve
s the value of the tops. So choosing the right percentag
e noil is a balancing act. A 6% noil is typical in modern
topmaking mills.
 Each fully combed tuft of fibres is drawn off by the dra
wing-off rollers and laid on top of the previously combe
d ones, like shingles on the roof. This overlapped web
of fully combed fibres is then consolidated by the calen
der rollers and deposited in the sliver can. Because fibr
es in the combed sliver simply overlap, the cohesion be
tween fibres is very small, therefore the combed sliver i
s very weak. To improve the strength of combed sliver
s, the slivers may be crimped by a crimping mechanism
before they are deposited into the coiler can.
Figure 2.21 shows the worsted combing in sep
arate stages, noting that the upper nipper has
a brush attached to it to assist with fibre penet
ration into the pins of the circular comb.

Figure 2.21 A graphical representation of worst

ed combing process (CSIRO Wool Textile News
, Feb. 1969).
► Settings onthe comb( 精梳机工艺参数 )
(1)Noil( 落毛 ) setting

Noil setting is also known as detachment setting or ga

uge setting. It is the closest distance between the bite
of the nippers and the nip line of the detaching rollers.
On a worsted comb, this setting may vary from 26 m
m to 40 mm. A large ratch setting will lead to increase
d noil, and longer mean fibre length in the top. This w
ill be further discussed in the following section on the
geometrical model of worsted combing.
(2)Feed( 喂入 )

Normally about 12 to 32 slivers are fed to a worsted

comb, depending on sliver weight and machine desig
n. A practical rule of thumb is:

Rule of thumb for feed: Input ktex = 20 x Micron

For example, if the comb is processing 22 micron wo

ol, then the total density of the feed stock may be se
t at 20 x 22 = 440 ktex.

As mentioned earlier, the comb operates in an inter

mittent fashion. On a worsted comb, the feed length
is usually adjustable between 4.5 to 9 mm per combi
ng cycle.
(3)Production rate( 产量 )
The comb production rate can be calculated using the
formulas below:

A practical rule of thumb is:

Rule of thumb for production rate:
Prod.Rate = 1.4 x Micron
It is typical for a worsted comb to have a production r
ate between 20 to 40 kg/hour.
Geometrical theory of worsted combing
► Geometrical theory of worsted combing
Belin and Walls (1963) developed a geometrical model
of fibre selection in worsted combing. This model is rep
resented in figure 2.22 below.
Nip of detaching Nipper Feed
rollers position mechanism
B D E F
s ection combed
by circular com b

(a)
f A’
f
Noil Setting N
Top
comb
A C
f

(b)

(a) Fibre b eard in the combi ng zone BD com bed by circular com b and about to be
presented to the detachingrollers. DE is the ‘dead zone’ in front of the nipper,
where pi ns on the comb cylinder can n ot reach
(b) Fibre b eard advanced a distance ‘ f ’ by the feed mec hanism F. Fibres with ends
inside detaching zone AB rem oved to combed sli ver, their tail ends combed by
the top comb C
Figure 2.22 Geometrical model of fibre selection in worsted combing
 This model shows that for fibres not held by the nippers, the co
mbing action of the circular comb will remove them as noils. The
se are the relatively short fibres, i.e. fibres shorter than the noil
setting (N). Longer but poorly aligned fibres not gripped by the
nippers will also be removed as noil. After the initial combing by
the circular comb, the fibre beard is fed forward a short distance
represented by 'f' in figure 2.22. Combed fibres with leading end
s reaching the detaching zone A'B (AB after feeding) will be pull
ed through the top comb by the detaching rollers and they will e
nd up in the combed sliver. If a fibre has its trailing end just grip
ped by the nippers and its leading end just reaching the detachi
ng zone A'B, this fibre will end up in the combed sliver, even tho
ugh its length is relatively short (slightly longer than N - f). On t
he other hand, if a relatively long fibre of length N is not gripped
by the nippers, it will end up as noil regardless of the fact that it
s leading end is well inside the detaching zone A'B. Therefore, it
is inevitable that a few fibres in the noil are longer than some fib
res in the combed sliver. This will be more so if the fibres are no
t well aligned before combing. This also highlights the importanc
e of pre-comb gillings and the necessity to straighten fibres befo
re combing.
For any fibre that is shorter than (N - f), there is no w
ay that this fibre will be able to get gripped by the nip
per and in the same time having its leading end inside
the detaching zone A'B, so this fibre will always end u
p in the noil.

During detaching, the top comb is inserted just a short

distance in front of the 'dead zone' DE to ensure that f
ibres are fully combed along their entire lengths. The
'dead zone' exists because the pins on the circular co
mb can not reach right up to the nipping points of the
nippers. In practice, this 'dead zone' length is reduced
with the aid of a nipper brush, which pushes the fibres
into the pins on the circular comb (figure 2.21). The i
mpurities, short fibres and neps blocked by the top co
mb during detaching are removed as noil in the next c
ombing cycle.
► Effect of combing on fibre properties
In addition to the obvious changes in fibre length, combing also
changes fibre diameter slightly. With wool fibres, finer fibres are
usually shorter ones, and are also easier to break during carding
and combing. Since combing removes short fibres mainly, the av
erage diameter of fibres in the noil is about 10% finer than the r
aw wool from which they have been produced. With the removal
of relatively shorter and finer wools, the combed sliver has an av
erage fibre diameter that is about 1% coarser than the raw wool
from which the combed sliver is produced. In absolute terms, it i
s usual for the average fibre diameter to increase by about 0.3
micron after combing. This increase should be considered when
selecting raw wool, as discussed in the section on TEAM formula
e and applications.

The reading material "ITMA'99 - long staple gilling and combin

g" by Atkinson (1999) discusses the latest developments in wors
ted gilling and combing, as exhibited at the 1999 international te
xtile machinery exhibition.
Worsted Top( 精梳毛条 ) Finishing
The worsted top finishing usually consists of two gillin
g operations on the combed slivers.

► Objectives
The objectives of top finishing are:

-Randomise comb overlap effect

-Mixing of fibres from different combs
-Producing tops of the right count, regain, and packag
e form
-Improving the evenness

An explanation of some of these objectives is given in

the following section.
► The process
As with gilling before combing, the top finishing gillin
g processes combine drafting, doubling and pin contr
ol.

As the combed slivers are removed from the storage

cans to feed the 1st finishing gillbox, they follow the
'first-in-last-out' order (i.e. natural reversal of fibre e
nds). Because of this natural reversal, fibres in slivers
fed to the 1st finishing gilling are drafted in the rever
se direction, i.e. opposite to the direction of fibres as
they came out of the comb. This is known as 'reverse
drafting'. The reverse drafting helps to randomise th
e overlapping fibre ends in the combed slivers, leadin
g to improved sliver strength due to the increased int
er-fibre cohesion. This is shown in figure 2.23.
 Combed
sliver with
overlapping
points

Overlapping points

Drafting
direction

Reverse drafting
randomises fibre
ends in the
combed sliver

Figure 2.23 Reverse drafting randomising comb overlapping effect

The first finishing gillbox feeds on slivers from m
any combs. This doubling of slivers (from differe
nt combs) in the gilling process improves the ev
enness of the gilled sliver, as discussed in the m
odule on yarn evenness. A special control mecha
nism is often used in the finishing gill to automat
ically level or regulate the sliver evenness, such
a mechanism is called an autoleveller.
► The principle of autolevelling has been discussed in the first topic
of this module. Figure 2.24 shows a gillbox with an autolevelling
system. The slivers are fed into the gillbox via a condenser funnel
and a pair of measuring rollers. This measuring rollers are known
as tongue and groove or shoe and groove rollers. The bottom roller
has a groove through which the slivers run. The tongue or shoe
roller is the top one, which sits in the groove roller, pressing on the
slivers. Variations in the amount of fibre materials running through
the tongue and groove rollers will cause the tongue roller to move
up or down. This movement reflects the variation in material
thickness and is automatically recorded as a 'pattern line' on the
memory unit. The memory unit then feeds this information forward
to the transmitter unit, which controls a variable speed mechanism.
This mechanism can change the speed of the back rollers to vary
the draft. For example, if the tongue and groove measuring unit
detects a thick section running through, this information is
recorded and fed forward to the transmitter. When the thick
section arrives in the drafting zone, the variable speed mechanism
will reduce the back roller speed to increase the draft on this thick
section. Conversely, if the measuring unit detects a thin spot
section coming through, the draft on the thin section will be
reduced by increasing the speed of the back rollers.
► Figure 2.24 Autolevelling gillbox (Brearley and Iredale 1980, p.83)
After two finishing gillings, we get worsted 'tops'. The
tops are usually packaged in balls or in bumps. Balls a
re self-supporting cross wound tops, while bumps are
press-packed layers of coiled tops.

The tops should be of the right moisture content. Th

e standard regain for tops is about 18%. It is normal
to spray moisture on the sliver at the delivery end of t
he first finishing gill, to bring the regain up to about 1
9% first. At the 2nd finishing gilling process, about 1
% of the moisture is lost through evaporation.
► Quality of wool tops
From a spinner's point of view, tops should be
produced to the spinner's specifications. These
specifications usually include requirements on the
following:

-Fibre diameter (micron) and CV of fibre diameter

-Average fibre length (Hauteur) and CV of Hauteur
-Count or size of the top
-Short fibre content
In addition, the tops should be free from contamina
tions (coloured fibre, vegetable matters, bale packin
g materials etc), and of the correct shape and densit
y.

The TEAM equations discussed before have been ro

utinely used by top-makers to select the right wool f
or the tops, and for predicting the important quality
attributes of tops according to raw wool specificatio
ns.
Worsted Drawing
► Objectives
After the tops arrive at a worsted spinning mill (or t
he spinning department of a vertical worsted mill), t
hey go through a series of drawing processes. The
main objectives of worsted drawing are:

-Reduce the count of tops gradually before spinning

-Mix tops of different properties
-Minimise irregularity in count, colour etc.
► Drawing process
The drawing sequence differs from mill to mill. A typical
sequence of producing a 21 tex worsted yarn is given i
n Table 2.5
The roving frame used in the worsted system i
s mainly of the rub finisher type, although a fly
er roving frame is also used. A schematic of th
e rub finisher roving frame is shown in Figure 2
.25.

Fig. 2.25: Schematic of a rub finisher roving fra

me (Grosberg and Iype 1999, p.16)
The rub finisher roving frame uses roller drafting to atte
nuate the input sliver. The roving straight after drafting i
s weak, since no twist is inserted into the roving. To incr
ease the strength of the roving, rubbing aprons are use
d to consolidate the roving to increase fibre cohesion. E
ach roving package normally has two rovings wound up
side by side without being twisted together (parallel win
ding). The rovings are then used to feed a worsted ring
spinning machine.

Because the roving stage is the last process before spin

ning, it is important that rovings are of good quality. Th
e Uster spectrograms are often used to check whether t
here is any periodic mass variation in the roving. If ther
e is, it should be rectified as soon as possible before furt
her processing.
Once we have the rovings, spinning can commence t
o make yarns. Spinning is discussed in the next modu
le.

While we have devoted this topic to worsted processi

ng, it is also important to know the system of woollen
processing. The reading material “Woollen processing
system” by Osborne (1998) provides essential inform
ation on the differences between worsted and woolle
n processing.
Review questions

(1)If a 20 tex weaving yarn is to be produced with an av

erage number of 40 fibres in yarn cross section. What
would be the right average diameter of the raw wool f
or the top-making process? You need to show the calc
ulations involved and consider changes in fibre diamet
er during top-making.
(2)In your own words and use sketches if necessary, exp
lain how detergent helps to remove grease from the su
rface of wool during the aqueous wool scouring.
(3)An important unit on a card is the cylinder/worker/stri
pper unit. Explain, with the help of sketches, how this
unit helps achieve the objectives of fibre opening, align
ing, and mixing during carding.
(4)With reference to carding, gilling and combing p
rocesses, explain why three intermediate gillings
are commonly used in worsted top-making.
(5)With reference to the geometrical model of fibr
e selection in worsted combing, explain:
(a) Why is possible to find a few fibres in the no
il that are actually longer than some fibres in the
combed sliver?
(b) What happens to the noil% and the mean fi
bre length of the combed sliver is the feed 'f' is i
ncreased?
Staple Spinning and Filament
Texturing
 Ring spinning
Introduction
Ring spinning has been and will continue to be an important
spinning system for making staple spun yarns ( 环锭短纤
纱 )from different fibres. Since its invention in 1828, little has
changed in terms of the principle of ring spinning.
Furthermore, the principle of ring spinning for short staples
such as cotton and for long staples such as wool is exactly the
same. So the discussion in this topic applies to both short
staple and long staple ring spinning （短纤和长纤环锭纺
纱） . This topic discusses the three basic stages of ring
spinning, the physics of ring spinning, and the developments
as well as limitations of ring spinning. The detailed differences
in machine design for long staple and short staple ring
spinning are beyond the scope of this topic.
Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
 Explain the basic principle of ring spinning
 Know the features of ring spun yarns （环锭短纤
纱）
 Understand the theory of yarn balloon and its
implications
 Appreciate the advantages and disadvantages of
ring spinning
The principle and process
A schematic diagram of a ring spinning process is
shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1
Diagram of a ring spinning system (Mathews & Hardingham
1994, p.9)
It consists of a roller drafting unit （罗拉牵伸系统，罗
拉牵伸装置） , a ring （钢领） and traveller （钢丝
圈） assembly, and a bobbin （筒管，筒子）
mounted on a spindle 锭子 (driven by a tape). A yarn
guide 导纱钩 (pigtail guide) is also used to guide the
yarn. To start ring spinning, a seed yarn 接头纱，引头
纱 (on an empty bobbin) is threaded through the traveller
travelle
and the pigtail guide. It is then brought to the nip of the
front rollers where a thin strand 须条 of fibres emerges
As the bobbin/spindle rotates, the seed yarn is twisted
and the twist flows upwards to trap the thin strand of
fibres emerging from the front rollers. A continuous
twisted strand of fibres (i.e. the yarn) is thus formed.
The newly formed yarn is wound up onto the bobbin. To
avoid the newly formed yarn being wound onto just one
spot of the bobbin, the ring rail 钢领板 oscillates
upwards and downwards during spinning to build up the
yarn package along the bobbin length.
 The three basic steps of ring spinning, i.e. drafting 牵伸 ,
twisting 加捻 , and winding-on 卷绕 , are discussed below.

► Drafting
The roving 粗纱 is drafted by a roller drafting unit on the ring
frame 环锭细纱机 . Figure 1.2a shows the typical drafting
arrangement. They comprise three fluted bottom rollers 沟槽
下罗拉 (a), against which are pressed three top rollers 上罗拉
，胶辊 (b) that carry the pivoted weighting arm 摆动加压臂
，摆动加压杆 (c). The top rollers are driven via frictional contacts
by the bottom rollers, to which the drive is applied. The three
pairs of rollers form two drafting zones 牵伸区 . The break
draft zone 后牵伸区，预牵伸区 formed between the back and
middle pairs of rollers has a small draft only, and there is little
fibre control in this zone.

Figure 1.2 The roller drafting arrangement (Klein1987, p.5)

 The main draft zone 主牵伸区 is formed between
the middle and front pairs of rollers. Fibre control is
achieved by the revolving double aprons 胶圈 (e)
in this zone.

► (a) The drafting arrangeme

► (b) Cross-section through the drafting
arrangement
You may recall the concept of perfect roller drafting. It
requires fibres in the drafting zone travel at the speed
of back rollers until the fibre leading ends 纤维头端
reach the front roller nip 前钳口 , where they get
accelerated instantly to front roller speed. Because of
this requirement, the apron speed is close to the back
roller speed (break draft is small), and the aprons
have a ‘nose’ 鼻状物，胶圈顶端即胶圈钳口 which is
very close to the front roller nip (see figure 1.2b). The
distance between the apron nose and the front roller
nip should be as small as practically possible to ensure
the best fibre control during drafting.
Figure 1.2b also shows that the front top roller has a
slight ‘overhang’ 前倾 (a) relative to the front bottom
roller, while the middle top roller is set a short distance
(b) behind the middle bottom roller. Such position is
found to give smooth running of the top rollers. In
addition, the ‘overhang’ of the front top roller shortens
the spinning triangle (figure 1.3b), which tends to reduce
the rate of yarn breakage (ends-down) in spinning. More
on spinning triangle 纺纱三角区 is discussed in the
following section on twisting.

Figure 1.3 Front top roller without overhang (a) and with overhang
► Twisting 加捻
The essence of staple spinning 短纤维纺纱 is
about twist insertion. In ring spinning, twist 捻度，
捻回 is inserted into the thin strand of fibres
emerging from the front roller nip to form the yarn.
During ring spinning, the spindle is positively driven
by a belt or tape at a constant speed. The traveller
钢丝圈 is dragged around the ring 钢领 by the yarn
being wound onto the bobbin. The rotation of the
traveller allows the yarn between the traveller and
the pigtail guide 猪尾形导纱钩即导纱钩 to rotate at
the same speed. The persistence of vision will give us
the impression of a yarn balloon 气圈 as the yarn
rotates at a high speed. It is the rotating balloon that
inserts the actual twist into the yarn.
As twist is generated in the yarn balloon, it travels past
the yarn guide towards the front roller nip. But the
twist can not quite reach the nip line 钳口线 of the
front rollers, because the fibres emerging from the nip
have to be diverted inwards to be twisted around each
other. So a small triangle of fibres, without any twist, is
formed between the front roller nip and the fibre
convergence point as shown in figure 1.3. This triangle
is called the spinning triangle or twist triangle 加捻
三角区 . It is also known as the yarn formation zone.
Because there is no twist in this zone, it is a weak point
and ends-down 断头 most often occurs in this region.
For this reason, a large triangle is not desirable. The
height of the spinning triangle is affected by the
spinning geometry and the twist level in the yarn.
Overhang of front top roller and high twist will reduce
the height, hence the level of ends-down in spinning.
Because of air drag 空气阻力 on the yarn balloon
and friction between the traveller and ring, the yarn
balloon and the traveller rotate at a slower speed than
the spindle. As we will see shortly, the balloon speed
keeps changing as spinning continues. Theoretically,
we should use the balloon speed to work out the twist
level in the yarn. But this is obviously difficult because
of the changing speed of the balloon.
In practice, the nominal twist level in the yarn is
calculated using the constant spindle rotational
speed rather than the balloon speed. The
discrepancy arising from this approximation is quite
small.

Spindle rpm (revs per min .) (1.1)

Twist (turns per metre ) 
Yarn delivery speed (metres per min .)

The yarn delivery speed is surface speed of the front

rollers. It is also referred to as the yarn production
speed (rate).
► Winding-on 卷绕

As mentioned earlier, the yarn balloon rotates at a

slower speed than the spindle due to air drag
(resistance) on yarn and the friction between traveller
and ring. It is this difference in rotational speeds of
the balloon and the spindle (bobbin) that allows the
yarn to be wound up onto the bobbin. Without this
difference in rotational speed or if the traveller and
spindle rotate in sync, there will be no winding of yarn
onto the bobbin. In addition, the linear winding-on
speed needs to match the delivery (surface) speed of
the front rollers, otherwise the yarn will be too taut or
too slack during spinning.
Figure 1.4 shows a cross-sectional view of the
bobbin/ring/traveller assembly, with a yarn being
wound onto the bobbin via the traveller.

Figure 1.4 The cross-section of the bobbin/ring/traveller assembly

If the diameter of the bobbin at the yarn wind-on
point is dwind-on, the linear winding-on speed
(Vwind-on) should equal the circumference of yarn
package (π dwind-on) multiplied by the difference in
traveller and bobbin rotational speeds (nbobbin -
ntraveller), i.e.

Vwind on   d wind on  (nbobbin  ntraveller )

This wind-on speed should match the speed at which
the fibre strand is delivered by the front rollers. But
as the yarn package builds up, its circumference
changes. With a constant bobbin rotation speed
(nbobbin), the traveller needs to change its rotation
speed (ntraveller) so that the winding speed (Vwind-
on) remains constant and matches the front roller
delivery speed. The beauty of ring spinning is that
the traveller can self-adjust its rotational speed
during spinning. It's all done automatically by the
traveller itself.
► Characteristics of ring spun yarns
Ring spun yarns are characterised by their good
strength and smoothness 光滑 , and their relatively
high hairiness 毛羽 .

Ring spun yarns feature near-helical fibre

configuration in the yarn structure. This is a result of
twisting a strand of well-aligned and parallel fibres. In
the whole processing stages from carding 梳理 right
up to ring spinning, fibre alignment has been an
essential aim. By having well-aligned fibres within the
yarn structure, the fibres are able to share the stress
in the yarn when a force is applied to stretch the yarn.
This is why ring spun yarns have excellent strength.
The good fibre alignment and the near-helical
configuration of surface fibres also impart the yarn
with a smooth and neat surface.
During ring spinning, the fibres on the two edges of the
spinning triangle must be strongly deflected to get bound
into the yarn at the convergence point 汇合点 . The
deflection is higher with a smaller triangle (figure 1.3b).
Not all fibres will be bound into the yarn, particularly
those fibres with a high rigidity 刚度，硬挺度 and low
cohesion 抱合性，粘合性 with neighbouring fibres. As
a consequence, some of these fibres escape the twisting
action and are lost as fly 飞花 , others may only get
partially bound in with their remaining parts projecting
outside the yarn surface as hair fibres. This is why ring
spinning produces relatively hairy yarns, especially when
spinning short and coarse fibres. The majority of these
hair fibres have their tail ends sticking out of the yarn
surface. This is because as the tail ends emerge from the
front roll nip, they are no longer under any positive
control and the centrifugal force 离心力 from the yarn
rotation tends to throw these uncontrolled tail ends out
away from the yarn body, making them protruding hair
fibres.
Figure 1.5 shows a photo of the spinning triangle
and the hair fibres (trailing ends) on the newly
formed yarn.

Figure 1.5 Formation of trailing hairs in the spinning triangle (Wang et al 1999)
The hairiness is a desirable feature of staple spun
yarns. But too much of it can be a costly nuisance.
The latest compact spinning 紧密纺，聚集纺
technology, released at the 1999 international textile
machinery exhibition in Paris, eliminates the spinning
triangle all together by using a modified drafting
arrangement to compact the fibres before twist is
inserted. The compact spun yarns are very smooth
with few protruding fibre ends.
► Twist variation within yarn package
We mentioned in the previous section that as the yarn
package builds up, the traveller adjusts its rotational
speed automatically. This would suggest that within a
yarn package, the twist level would be different. This
is true. But the difference is only marginal as the
following examples demonstrates.

Assume:
(1) Cop 管纱，纬管，纡子 dimensions as in the diag
ram below
(2) Front roll delivery speed is 15 m/min
(3) Spindle speed is 10,000 rpm
Since the linear wind-on speed = winding rpm x
circumference of the wind-on point = front roll
delivery speed, we have:

15
Winding rpm at A = = 191 revs
 x 2.5 x 10 -2

15
Winding rpm at B = = 80 revs
 x 6 x 10 -2
Ignoring the effect of up and down movement of
ring rail, we have:
Traveller speed at A = 10,000 - 191 = 9,809 rpm
Traveller speed at B = 10,000 - 80 = 9,920 rpm

Therefore,

9809
Twist at A = = 654 twists/m,
15
9920
Twist at B  = 662 twists/m
15
The difference in twist is about 1% only. If the effect
of added potential twist due to unwinding the yarn
axially (at the next process) is taken into account,
then at the minimum diameter A, more twists will be
added and at the maximum diameter B less twists will
be added thus bringing the twist levels more or less
equal at both points. Therefore, the effect of traveller
speed change (and cop build-up) on yarn twist is very
small.
Physics of ring spinning

The physics of ring spinning considers the various

forces acting on the yarn in the balloon, as well as the
forces acting on the traveller. This consideration is
necessary in order to gain an insight into the nature
of ring spinning, and how different
parameters/settings affect the spinning performance.
► Balloon theory
Consider the section of yarn between the pigtail
and the traveller as shown in figure 1.6.

: angular velocity of balloon; m: yarn mass/unit length

Tc: centrifugal force = m ds 2 y; H: balloon height

R: ring radius; T: yarn tension

Figure 1.6 Forces acting on the balloon
The centrifugal forces associated with the rotation of
the yarn makes this section of the yarn balloon out
to form a yarn balloon. Now consider a small
element, of length ds, in the balloon. Ignoring the
air drag 空气阻力 and other small forces, the only
forces acting on this small element would be the
tensions T （张力 T ） and T+dT at the two ends
of the element, plus the centrifugal force (m ds 2
y) acting on the element.
 In equilibrium, the forces acting on each element in
the balloon should be balanced in both X and Y
directions. So we have

T cos   (T + dT ) cos (  d )  0

T sin   Tc  (T  dT ) sin (  d )  0

or

 d (T cos  ) = 0

d (T sin  ) = - m ds  y
2
If we assume the balloon is slim, i.e. , and yarn
tension (T) is constant and equals To (the tension at
the pigtail guide), we get the following balloon
equation.
R m 2
y= sin( x)
m 2 TO (1.2)
sin( H)
TO

It should be stressed that this is the simplified balloon

equation. The detailed derivation need not concern us
here. What we are interested in is the practical
implications of this so called balloon theory.
The shape of the balloon is sinusoidal, and its
amplitude (A) and wavelength () are:

R (1.3)
A=
m 2
sin( H)
T O

2 2 TO
= = (1.4)
m 2  m
TO
A sine curve 正弦曲线 can contain one or more
points where the curve crosses the axis, and these
crossing points are called nodes 节点 as shown in
figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7 Formation of node in yarn balloons

For normal spinning, it is obvious from figure 1.7 (left
diagram) that the balloon height 气圈高度 (H)
should be less than half the wavelength (/2). If the
balloon height is more than half the wavelength (i.e. H
> /2), a node appears in the balloon as indicated in
figure 1.7 (right diagram). What this means is that
during spinning, the yarn at the node would always
want to be in the space occupied by the yarn package,
so that the yarn at the node strikes the rotating
package during spinning, resulting in an end-break 断
头 . Therefore, this node should be avoided for normal
spinning.
We now know that it is impossible to operate a ring
spinning machine with a multiple-node balloon 多节
气圈 (H > /2). However, means that the yarn
package height or size is limited. Since, to spin yarn
onto a large package, H should be large, this requires a
large to avoid a node. A large is achievable (according
to the equation 1.4) through:
either a large yarn tension which may lead to yarn
breakage;
or a low spindle speed , which usually means low
production rate.
In practice, a BALLOON CONTROL RING 气圈控制环
is normally used to restrict balloon expansion, so that
large yarn package may be used without having to
reduce the production or increase the yarn tension.

Figure 1.8 shows a sketch of the ring spinning process

with a balloon control ring restricting the balloon size.
It should be pointed out though that the balloon
control (restriction) ring tends to hinder doffing 落纱
(removal of full package from spindle). For this reason,
balloon control rings are not universally popular on
modern ring frames fitted with automatic doffing
systems. Instead, these ring frames use very small
package sizes to reduce balloon size and yarn tension.
Figure 1.8 Sketch of ring spinning with a balloon control ring
► Forces acting on the traveller
Figure 1.9 shows the different forces acting on a traveller
during spinning.

 RT

Tt = yarn tension at traveller; Tw = yarn wind-on tension

N = normal force between ring and traveller; Fa = air drag on traveller
F = frictional drag between ring and traveller (= N ); mg = traveller weight
Tc = centripetal forces on traveller = m R
(where m = traveller mass; R = ring radius; = spindle speed)

Figure 1.9 Forces acting on a traveller during spinning

 All these forces must be balanced during spinning. It is
possible to derive equations for this force balance to
show the effect of variables such as traveller weight,
balloon size, spindle speed, yarn count 纱线号数，纱
线支数 etc on the spinning tension.
In equilibrium:
 tangential forces = 0;  radial forces = 0;  vertical forces = 0

Ignoring Fa and mg, this gives the yarn wind-on

tension 卷绕张力 ,

m2 R
Tw = (1.5)
sin 
cos  + ( cos  - sin  tan  )
 RT
Again, the detailed derivation need not concern us here,
and we should focus on the following implications of
this equation.
(1) Wind-on tension increases with the square of the
spindle speed (). Since wind-on tension is directly
related to spinning tension in the yarn above the pigtail
guide, increasing the spindle rotational speed will
drastically increase the yarn tension, which may lead to
increased ends-down. This limits the maximum spindle
speed in ring spinning. If spindle speed is reduced to
reduce yarn tension, the production rates will drop.

(2) Winding tension increases as package diameter

decreases. This puts a limit on the minimum diameter
of the empty bobbin.
This is not obvious from equation 1.5. But if we look at
figure 1.9a, we will see that as the yarn package
diameter decreases, the winding angle or angle of
lead 卷绕角 () decreases. As the angle of lead
decreases, the tangential component 切向分力 (T') of
the winding tension (Tw) reduces, since T' = Tw sin.
But T' needs to be sufficient to be able to move the
traveller around the ring during spinning. Therefore, as
the package diameter reduces, the winding tension
(Tw) will have to increase to maintain the T' required
to move the traveller.
Figure 1.9a Winding tension and winding angle as indicated in
figure 1.9
(3)Since larger balloon means higher yarn tension, the
winding tension increases as the balloon gets longer.
This limits the length of the bobbin.

Points (2) & (3) suggest that a yarn is most likely to

break when spinning at the bottom of an empty bobbin
when the winding angle () is the smallest. This has
been confirmed in practice. For this reason, some
machines operate at a lower speed at the start (since
spinning tension increases with the square of spindle
speed) to avoid the ends-down during start-up.
This also explains the general rule used in practice that
the angle of lead () should not be less than 28O. This
minimum angle of lead is equivalent to a minimum ratio
of (empty bobbin or tube diameter)/(ring
diameter) = 0.47.
(4)Winding tension increases as ring radius 钢领半径
(R) increases. This limits the size of the full package
that must fit inside the ring.

Points (2), (3) & (4) mean that there is a limit to how
much yarn can fit onto the yarn package enclosed by
the ring.
The package capacity 管纱卷装容量 is approximately
proportional to (ring diameter)2, so a large ring
diameter is desirable for increased package capacity.
But in practice, the ring diameter is restricted by
considerations of the yarn tension, the minimum angle
of lead previously discussed, as well as other factors
such as power consumption 功率消耗 , spindle rpm,
and traveller speed limitations (see relationships
below).
1
Max. spindle speed 
Ring diameter

Max. linear traveller speed  Ring diameter

This is why we do not see ring spinning machines with
very large rings and very small bobbins (tubes). For
coarser and stronger yarns, large ring radius and yarn
packages are used to allow for more yarns on the
package. For finer yarns, both ring radius and the
package size are smaller. Most worsted yarns 精梳纱
线 are spun using rings between 45 and 75 mm in
diameter at spindle rotational speeds between 7,000
and 12,000 rpm. Short staple yarns are spun with
smaller rings, but at about twice the spindle speeds
used for worsted yarns.
(5)Winding tension increases with traveller mass.
Heavier yarns require a greater centripetal force to
keep them rotating. Traveller mass is used as a
variable to increase the tension and generate the
higher centripetal force for heavier yarns. The
traveller mass is usually chosen according to the linear
density of the yarn being spun.
(6)Winding tension increases with an increase in the
frictional coefficient between the ring and the traveller
(RT).
 While we talk about the winding tension here, we
should note that the spinning tension in the yarn is
directly related to winding tension, so any factor that
contributes to an increase in winding tension will also
increase the tension in the yarn during ring spinning. In
fact all the implications for winding tension apply to
tension in the yarn or spinning tension.
Developments and limitations of ring
spinning
As indicated in the beginning of this module, ring
spinning is the most versatile spinning process. It can
spin yarns of a wide range of counts (from very fine to
coarse) from different types of fibres (short as well as
long staple fibres). The quality of ring spun yarns has
been a benchmark against which the quality of yarns
produced on other spinning systems is judged.
 The basic principle of ring spinning has not changed
much since its invention by Thorpe in 1828. But there
have been numerous developments of the ring
spinning system, particularly in the short staple
sector. These developments include:
► Automatic doffing of full cops (bobbins)
► Linkage to roving frame 粗纱机，此处指粗细联装置
的发展。
► Linkage to automatic winding machine 自动络纱机
，此处指细络联装置的发展。
 Developments of worsted ring frames are relatively
slow, because the market of worsted spinning is
much smaller than short staple spinning. Therefore
the incentive for manufacturers of worsted ring frame
is not very high.

Over the years, the ring spinning system has also

been modified to improve the properties of ring spun
yarns. Examples of such modifications include:
► Sirospun 赛洛纺 (see the reading “Sirospun - A yarn
with character" by Waldauser)
► Compact spinning 紧密纺 (see the reading “The
Suessen Elite Spinning system for long and short
staple fibres”, courtesy of Suessen, Germany)
 Ring spinning also has several major limitations. These
limitations include:
► High power consumption
► Small package size
► Low production rate
Staple spinning is basically about twist insertion. In
ring spinning, twist insertion requires the rotation of
the whole yarn package on the spindle. About 95% of
the power used in ring spinning is consumed by
rotating the yarn package to insert twist. This leads to
the relatively high power consumption for the ring
spinning systems.
 The package size is limited in ring spinning due to the
need to reduce the balloon height and yarn tension, as
discussed in the section on the physics of ring spinning.

Perhaps the most serious limitation of ring spinning is

its low production rate. We already know the
relationship between yarn twist level, spindle speed,
and yarn production or delivery speed (equation 1.1).
According to its end-use, a ring spun yarn needs to
have a certain level of twist, which is determined before
spinning is started. From equation 1.1, we know that
the only way of speeding up the yarn delivery speed or
production rate is to increase the spindle rotation
speed.
We already know that any increase in spindle speed
will lead to significant increase in yarn tension, hence
the possibility of ends-down. In addition, with the
increase in spindle speed, the traveller speed
increases. This increases the friction between the
traveller and the ring. Considerable heat is generated
because of this friction, which may result in traveller
burning during spinning. Because of these, spindle
speed can not be increased at will, and yarn
production is limited as a consequence. Currently, the
maximum spindle speed for short staple ring spinning
is about 25,000 rpm, and that for long staple ring
spinning is about 15,000 rpm.
The following example further illustrates this point.
Suppose a spinning mill 纺纱厂 produces a
standard 49 tex yarn, with a twist factor of 3500 tpm
, on 1,000 spindles operating at 15,000 revolutions
per minute and 90% efficiency. If the mill works 120
hours perweek, calculate the weight of yarn
produced per week.
Note that:
Machine production = Spindle production x No. of spindles x Machine efficiency

So we need to know the production per spindle first.

This requires the yarn twist level.

We know from the first module of this unit that:

Twist factor
Twist (tpm) 
Tex
In this example, we know the twist factor 捻系数 and
yarn count 纱线号数 . So the twist level in the yarn is:
3500
Yarn twist   500 (tpm)
49
Using equation 1.1 we have:
Spindle rpm 15000
Yarn delivery speed (m / min)    30 (m / min)
twist 500
This is the production rate per spindle running at 100%
efficiency. Since there are 1,000 spindles running at 90
% efficiency, the total production of the ring frame will
be:

Machine production = 30 m/min x 1,000 x 90% = 27,00

0 m/min.
Now the machine operates 120 hours a week, so the
weekly machine production will be:
Weekly machine production = 27,000 m/min x (120
x 60 min) = 194,400,000 m = 194,400 km.

For a 49 tex yarn, each kilo meter of yarn weighs 49

grams. So a total of 194,400 km of yarn would weigh
about 9525600 grams or 9525.6 kg. In other words,
the average production per spindle is about 9.5 kg p
er 120 hour week.

If finer yarns are produced, the weight will be even l

ess. This gives you an idea of the production rate of
ring frames.
Winding and folding after spinning
It is convenient here to discuss some of the
key processes immediately after ring spinning -
winding and folding.
► Winding
We already know that ring spun yarns are wound onto small
bobbins or cops during spinning. Each bobbin contains only a
few grams of yarn. For transport, storage and further
processing, the small cops of yarn must be rewound onto large
yarn packages of the right density and structure. If the yarns
are to be dyed, then regular yarn packages of a low density are
necessary for even and good penetration of the dye liquor. For
weaving 机织 and knitting 针织 , fault free yarns should be
prepared on a large package of high density. So the first
process after ring spinning is yarn winding (or rewinding).
Today automatic winding machines perform a number of
important functions. These include automatic change of the
small yarn cops, automatic yarn piecing 自动接头 , and yarn
clearing 清纱 . During yarn clearing, yarn faults 纱线疵点
such as very thick and very thin places 纱线粗节和纱线细节
are removed. Otherwise these faults may cause problems in
weaving or show up in the final fabrics as defects.
The two basic winding mechanisms are: (a) a
package rotation mechanism 卷装回转机构，卷装
回转装置 to form coils of yarn on the package; and
(b) a yarn traverse mechanism 纱线横动装置 to
vary the position of wind. Two important parameters
about winding are the wind ratio 卷绕比 and wind
angle 卷绕角 (or angle of wind). The wind ratio is
defined as the number of yarn coils wound on a
package while the traverse mechanism completes a
full stroke 全程 in one direction. In other words,
the wind ratio is the number of revolutions of yarn
package per traverse stroke. The wind angle is
defined as the angle contained between a coil of yarn
on the surface of a package and the diametrical plane
of the package as indicated in figure 1.10. Increasing
the wind angle will increase package stability but
reduce the package density.
Figure 1.10 Angle of wind and angle of crossing
► Figure 1.11shows the principle of random cross winding 交
叉卷绕 or drum winding 槽筒卷绕，鼓盘式卷绕 . A grooved
drum 沟槽鼓盘即槽筒 is used as both package rotation
mechanism and yarn traverse mechanism. During winding, the
yarn package rotates via frictional contact with the surface of
the grooved drum, which is driven at a constant speed.
Because the grooved drum rotates at a constant speed, the
linear speed at which the yarn is wound onto the package is
also constant. As winding continues, the package diameter
grows, and the rotational speed (rpm) of the package
decreases to maintain a constant yarn linear speed (linear
speed = package rpm x package circumference). As a result,
the wind ratio changes as the package builds up, but the angle
of wind remains constant (i.e. package density is constant).
When the wind ratio becomes an integer or half integer, each
succeeding wrap of yarn is laid exactly on top of the preceding
wrap, and a ribbon forms until the wind ratio assumes a value
that is sufficiently different from the integer or half integer.
This is the so called ribboning effect 重叠效应 in random
cross winding.
Figure 1.12 shows a cone package 锥形卷装 with
ribbons. Ribbons 指重叠的纱线条带 are a serious
problem because they interfere with smooth
unwinding of the package, cause localised abrasion of
yarns in the ribbon, and change the density of the
package (ribbons are much denser than the rest of
the package). For this reason, many random cross
winders are fitted with ribbon breaking devices to
prevent ribbon formation. These devices may oscillate
the yarn package or the grooved drum sideways in a
random manner, or introduce rational speed
variations to the yarn package.
Figure 1.11 Random cross winding (Lord 1981, p.557)

Figure 1.12 A cross wound cone package with ribbons

Another form of winding is precision cross winding, in
which the wind ratio is constant but the angle of wind
decreases as the package builds up. The mechanisms
of precision winding are shown in figure 1.13. Instead
of using a groove drum to drive the package via frictio
nal contact, the package mandrel 辊筒铁芯子，心轴
is driven positively by a motor, and a reciprocating yar
n guide is used as the traversing mechanism. Ribbon f
ormation is avoided by setting the package rpm so that
the wind ratio is not an integer or half integer. As the p
ackage builds up, the angle of wind decreases so the p
ackage density increases. Precision winding can be use
d to build a very dense package.
Figure 1.13 Precision cross winding (Lord 1981, p.557)
 Assembly winding 并线络筒 is the winding of two
or more yarns on to a single package side by side,
without adding any twist. This is usually done in
preparation for the subsequent folding or twisting
operation.
► Folding or twisting 并纱或捻线
Folding is a process of combining two or more single
yarns by twisting. It is also known as twisting,
plying and doubling. The resultant yarn is a folded
yarn 股线 , also known as plied yarn or doubled yarn.
Two-folding is a typical process in the worsted
industry.
You may wonder why it is necessary to twist together
two single yarns to make a two-fold yarn. This is
because a two-fold yarn has a number of distinct
advantages over its single components, including:
(1)A balanced yarn can be produced
Single yarns are twist lively. In other words, they
always untwist when there is an opportunity. The
twist liveliness may lead to snarling 纱线扭结，缠
结 when the tension in the yarn is insufficient. Twist
liveliness may also need to distortion of the
resultant fabrics, knitted fabrics in particular.
However, if two single yarns are combined and
twisted together in reverse direction, a balanced
folded yarn 指不扭结的股线 can be obtained.
(2)Improved abrasion resistance
As we have discussed already, ring spun yarns
are relatively hairy. The hair fibres often cause
problems in subsequent processes such as weaving.
Also in weaving, warp yarns are subject to repeated
abrasion and fibres may be gradually rubbed away,
leading to yarn breakage. When two single yarns are
twisted together, their surface fibres are trapped
between the two single yarns. This improves the
abrasion resistance.
(3)Increased strength
The two fold yarn is stronger than its single
components.
(4)Reduced irregularity
The doubling reduces the irregularity according
to the law of doubling discussed in the module
on yarn evenne
Two-for-one twisting 倍捻 has been the common
method of producing a folded yarn. Figure 1.14
shows a schematic of the two-for-one twisting
process. An assembly wound package 并线筒子
(i.e. two yarns assembled onto one package without
any twist) is usually used as the stationary supply
package. The supply yarn is threaded through a
guide mounted on a freely rotating flyer and then
passes through the hollow rotating spindle. At the
base of the spindle, the yarn comes out forming a
balloon, and then goes onto the winding head via the
yarn guide. Each rotation of the spindle will insert
one turn of twist in the length of yarn within the
spindle, plus another turn of twist in the yarn balloon.
As a result, two turns of twist are inserted into the
yarn for each rotation of the spindle, hence the name
two-for-one twisting.
Figure 1.14 Two-for-one twisting (Grosberg and Iype 1999, p.20)
Review questions
1. Based on the discussion in this topic, sketch the appearance of a typical
ring spun yarn.
2. Rovings of 500 tex are used to feed a ring frame with 1000 spindles
running at 20,000 rpm and 90% efficiency. A spinning draft of 20 is
used to produce the ring spun yarn. If 54 kilograms of yarn are
produced each hour on the machine, calculate the twist level in the yarn
(t.p.m) and its twist factor (t.p.m.). Include details of your calculation.
3. One of the limitations of ring spinning is the relatively small amount of
yarn on a full bobbin. Explain why we can not simply increase the ring
radius and use a small empty bobbin to allow for a large quantity of yarn
to be wound onto the bobbin before the full bobbin is doffed.
4. Explain, with the help of sketch, the principle of Sirospun and 2-for-1
twisting.
 Rotor spinning 转杯纺
Introduction
Rotor spinning belongs to the family of open-end
(OE) spinning 自由端纺纱 . Open-end spinning
systems are designed to overcome some of the
problems associated with ring spinning. As discussed in
the previous topic, twist insertion in ring spinning
requires the rotation of the whole yarn package. In
open-end spinning, only an end of the yarn is rotated
to insert twist, which consumes much less energy than
rotating a yarn package. The most successful examples
of the open-end spinning concept are the rotor
spinning and friction spinning systems. This topic
discusses rotor spinning. Friction spinning will be
discussed in the next topic.
 Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:
► Understand the basic concept of open-end (OE)
spinning
► Know the principle of rotor spinning
► Understand the differences between ring spinning
and rotor spinning
General concept of open-end
spinning
Open-end spinning is a relatively new concept
of spinning. The basic principle of open-end
spinning is illustrated in figure 2.1 (Lord 1981,
p.96).

Figure 2.1 The principle of open-end spinning (Lord 1981,

p.96)
Like ring spinning, open-end spinning
involves the three basic steps of drafting,
twisting and winding-on.
► Drafting
Very high draft is used to attenuate 拉细 the feed
sliver (not roving) into individual fibres. Such a high
draft is usually by means of pinned drafting (with
toothed rollers) rather than by roller drafting.

Because of the direct sliver feed, there is no need to

convert the sliver into roving first before spinning,
which is necessary in conventional ring spinning.
► Twisting
The individual fibres are collected at the yarn open-
end and twist is then inserted at the yarn open-end.

Since only the yarn opne-end is rotated to insert

twist, open-end spinning is much more energy
efficient than ring spinning, which requires the
rotation of a massive yarn package to insert twist. In
addition, the twist insertion rate in open-end spinning
can be very fast. For a given yarn twist level, this
translates into fast yarn delivery speed or high
production rate.
► Winding-on

In open-end spinning, twisting and winding are

separate operations so that yarns can be wound onto
a large yarn package.

In ring spinning, the package size 卷装尺寸 is

restricted and the yarns from the many small
packages need to be joined up to make up a large
package.
In summary, open-end spinning has the following
major advantages compared to ring spinning:

►elimination of roving stage

►high productivity and low energy consumption
►large package size
Now that we know the basic principle of open-end
spinning and its advantages, we can proceed to
discuss the details of rotor spinning. As mentioned in
the introduction, rotor spinning is a successful
example of the open-end spinning concept.
We start with a brief account of the history of rotor
spinning.
Historical perspectives of rotor spinning
Compared with ring spinning, rotor spinning is a
relatively new spinning technology that has not yet
reached its maturity. A brief chronology of rotor
spinning developments is listed below:

► 1937 The first idea and basic rotor patented by

Berthelsen (Denmark).
► 1951 Meimberg (Germany) developed the invention
further and built the first spinning models.
► 1965 Rohlena and his group (Czechoslovakia) found the
correct combination of spinning elements and showed
the first commercially functional units in Brunn.
► 1967 The Czech firm ELITEX exhibited its rotor
spinning machine (BD200) near the international
textile machinery exhibition (ITMA) in Basel,
Switzerland. The machine had a rotor diameter of 75
mm, a rotating speed of 25,000 rpm, and a high twist
multiplier (TM=6, or a twist factor of about 5740
tpm.).
► 1970 First sale of BD200 in the West
► 1971 Invention of the twin disk rotor drive allowing
higher rotor speed (Suessen). With smaller rotors (60
mm), the rotor speed increased to 35,000 rpm.
► 1978 Introduction of 40-50 mm diameter rotors,
improved spinbox geometries, lower yarn twist
possible, first automatic yarn piecer and package
doffer fitted on the rotor spinner.
► 1989 Smaller rotors with speeds of 100,000 rpm.
► 1992 Quality yarns as fine as 13-15 tex produced
commercially at rotor speeds up to 120,000 rpm.
► 1999 Rotor speeds up to 150,000 rpm possible.
The development of rotor spinning technology
continues today. The ultimate aim is to produce
rotor spun yarns that match the quality of
comparable ring spun yarns, but at a fraction of
the cost of ring spinning.
Rotor spinning principle
Figure 2.2 shows the key elements inside the ‘spin-box’
纺纱器 of a rotor spinning system. Like any other staple
spinning system, the principle of rotor spinning entails
three basic steps of drafting, twisting and winding-on.

Figure 2.2 Key elements inside the 'spin-box' of a rotor spinner

► Drafting

When the feed sliver enters the ‘spin-box’, it is

presented to a toothed combing roll 锯齿分梳辊
(or comber roll) by a feed roller and feed plate
assembly. The teeth 锯齿 on the comber roll comb
the fibres in the sliver and because the surface speed
of the comber roll is much higher than the feed roller,
the density of fibres on the surface of the comber roll
is much less than the density of the sliver. In other
words, drafting is performed by the comber roll on the
incoming sliver. The amount of draft exercised by the
comber roll is very high, and can be calculated using
the equation below:

Surface speed of comber roll ( m / min)

Draft of comber roll 
Sliver feed speed ( m / min)
The housing 外壳 of the comber roll has an
opening. Because trash and other impurities have a
higher density than fibres, they are ejected through
the opening by centrifugal forces, while the flexible
fibres can bend their way around the comber roll until
they are sucked into the rotor via a transport tube.
The transport tube 输纤管 is tapered to allow
acceleration of fibre flow through it. This acceleration
helps with fibre straightening. This acceleration also
means some fibre drafting is performed by the
transport tube. This draft is usually quite small.

For a uniform flow of individual fibres into the rotor,

the feed sliver should have good uniformity in linear
density (e.g. a Uster CV% between 2.5 and 3.5), and
the comber roll should be in good condition.
► Twisting

Once inside the gyrating rotor, the individual fibres are

thrown against the inner wall of the rotor 转杯，纺纱
杯 by the centrifugal force. The fibres slide down the
wall into the vee-shaped rotor groove as shown in
figure 2.3. As the rotor rotates, many layers of fibre
are collected around the rotor groove to make up
sufficient linear density for the final yarn. This is the
important doubling effect 并合效应 in rotor
spinning. The doubling or layering of fibres tends to
even out any short term irregularities in the yarn,
which makes the rotor spun yarn surprisingly even. In
contrast, there is no doubling in ring spinning, the
roving is attenuated to yarn linear density during ring
spinning.
 Once a sufficient number of fibres is collected in the rotor
groove, the fibres need to be taken out continuously otherwise
they will soon clog the rotor groove. To do this, a ‘seed yarn’
引头纱 is first introduced into the rotor through the navel
(figure 2.3). Again, the centrifugal force throws the seed yarn
into the rotor groove. As the rotor is rotating rapidly, the seed
yarn rotates with it. This rotation traps the loose fibres at the
end of the seed yarn. At this point, the seed yarn is pulled out,
the fibres trapped to the yarn end are peeled off the rotor
groove by the outgoing yarn. Since the peel-off point 剥离点
is rotating with the rotor, twist is inserted into the out-going
fibres. Furthermore, the twist at the peeling point 剥离点
extends a distance inside the groove to form the binding zone or
twist zone as shown in figure 2.4. Within this zone, new yarn is
formed. The stability of rotor spinning is affected by the length
of this twist zone, which is in turn a function of the amount of
twist at a given rotor speed and the additional false twist 假捻
induced by the navel 阻捻盘 . Before we talk about the false
twist, let us see how the actual (real) twist in a rotor spun yarn
is calculated.
 ► Figure 2.3 A look inside the rotor

Figure 2.4 Formation of a twist zone inside the rotor groove (Deussen1993,
p.24)
We now know that the rotation of the peeling-off
point inside the rotor groove inserts twist into the
fibres to form a rotor spun yarn. The peeling-off point
rotates with the rotor at a very high rotational speed
(i.e. over 100,000 rpm). In addition, by continuously
withdrawing the newly formed yarn from the rotor at
the yarn delivery speed, the peeling-off point also
moves relative to and in the same direction as the
rotor, at the same speed as the yarn withdrawal or
delivery speed. In other words, the real speed of the
peeling-off point is actually slightly faster than the
rotor speed, by an amount equal to the yarn delivery
speed. But the additional twist from this will be very
small compared with the twist from the rotor rotation.
The following example will demonstrate this point.
Suppose a rotor yarn is produced at 150 m/min by a
rotor at 120,000 rpm, and the diameter of inner groove
of the rotor is 30 mm. We wish to find out the actual
twist put into the yarn by the peeling-off point inside the
rotor groove.

Relative to the rotor, the peeling-off point travels at the

yarn delivery speed of 150 m/min. The circumference of
the rotor groove is 30 x  = 94.2 mm (or 0.0942 m).
Therefore, the rotational speed of the peeling-off point
(POP) relative to the rotor is:
Linear speed of POP 150
rpm of POP (relative to rotor )   1592 (rpm)
Circumfere nce of rotor groove 0.0942

This rpm is about 1.3% of the rotor RPM, and the twist
put into the yarn from this additional source will be
about 1.3% of the twist due to rotor rotation.
This example shows that for practical purpose, the
twist in a rotor spun yarn can be calculated from the
rotor rpm and yarn delivery speed, using the
equation below.
Rotor rpm
Yarn twist (tpm) 
Yarn delivery speed (m / min)

This will be the real theoretical twist in the rotor spun

yarn. What about the false twist we mentioned a little
earlier? This is briefly discussed in the following
paragraph.
 The trumpet shaped navel 嗽叭形状的阻捻盘 is usually
made of wear-resistant ceramic material. The newly formed
rotor yarn is withdrawn through the stationary navel to the
winding mechanism. As indicated in figure 2.3, the yarn path is
deflected 90O at the navel. The tension in the yarn pushes the
yarn against the navel inner surface. Because of the friction
between the rotating yarn and the navel inner surface, the yarn
rolls on the navel surface. This rolling action produces a false
twist in the section of the yarn inside the rotor and this false
twist is in addition to the real twist from the rotor rotation.
Because of this additional twist, the length of the binding zone
or twist zone (figure 2.4) is increased, which increases the
stability of spinning. The yarn (inside the rotor) is also stronger
due to the additional twist, which reduces the ends-down.
Therefore, the navel induced false twist plays an important role
in rotor spinning. It should be noted that the false twist does
not show up in the final yarn, which has real twist only. Also,
rolling of the yarn against the navel surface tends to increase
yarn hairiness.
► Winding

The yarn withdrawn from the rotor is wound onto a

large yarn package, ready for use. Unlike in ring
spinning, twisting and winding functions are divorced
and this permits the use of large package size. Figure
2.5 shows the key elements of the winding
mechanism. The yarn package sits on a winding drum.
The winding drum is positively driven and friction
contact between the yarn package and the winding
drum drives the yarn package. A reciprocation yarn
guide ensures that the yarn is laid across the package
traverse.
Figure 2.5 Yarn winding mechanism (Deussen
1993, p.12)
Figure 2.6 shows the whole process of rotor
spinning from sliver feed to yarn package.
Figure 2.6 Rotor spinning process (Deussen 1993,
p. 6)
► Characteristics of rotor yarn
Ideally, fibres should be incorporated by twist into the
yarn in a helical configuration. In rotor spinning, this is
only possible if the fibres are laid parallel inside the
rotor groove away from the twist zone and the peeling-
off point (figure 2.4). However, during the course of
spinning, it is unavoidable that some fibres actually land
in the twist zone or on the yarn catenary between the
peeling-off point and the navel. When this happens, the
fibres get wrapped tightly around the already formed
yarn and become the characteristic wrapper fibres 包
缠纤维 on the yarn surface. The formation of a wrapper
from a fibre landing in the twist zone is depicted in
figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Formation of wrapper fibres in rotor spinning (Deussen 1993, p.24)
While a longer twist zone makes spinning more
stable, it also increases the chance of wrapper
formation. The percentage of wrapper formation can
be approximated by the formula below.

Mean fibre length (mm)

Percentage of wrappers  100
  rotor diameter (mm)
From this formula, it is clear that long fibres and small
rotors will increase the chance of wrapper formation.
For this reason, rotor spinning has been primarily used
for short staple fibres such as cotton and cotton
blends. With long staple fibres, a large rotor is
necessary to reduce the wrapper fibres and a slow
rotor rpm has to be used, this makes spinning
uneconomical. This is one of the reasons why rotor
spinning has not been successful in the long staple
spinning sector. In recent years, rotor technology has
been used to spin fine and short wool fibres.
Increasing the twist will also increase the number of
wrapper fibres. This is because an increase in yarn
twist will increase the length of twist zone inside the
rotor groove, causing the newly arrived fibres to be
held on the otherside of the already twisted section
and thereby increasing the number of wrapper fibres.

Because the wrapper fibres simply wrap around the

yarn surface, they contribute little to yarn strength.
However, wrapper fibres tend to increase the
abrasion resistance and reduce the hairiness of rotor
spun yarns.
Sometimes, the middle section of a fibre gets caught by the
rotating yarn arm inside the rotor, as indicated in figure 2.8.
When this fibre gets wrapped around the yarn, its two ends are
twisted in opposite directions. So it is possible to have both S-
twist and Z-twist in the wrapper fibres, even though rotor spun
yarn is usually spun with Z-twist only. Because of the presence
of both S-twist and Z-twist, it is difficult to completely untwist a
rotor spun yarn. The wrapper fibres, and difficulty to completely
untwist the yarn have been used to differentiate between ring
and rotor spun yarns. The presence of S and Z twists in
wrappers also explains the fact that the measured twist of rotor
spun yarns is lower than the nominal machine twist calculated
from the rotor rpm and yarn delivery speed. The so-called the
T% value has been used to reflect the degree of this
difference, as indicated below.
Measured twist  machine twist
T %  100%
Machine twist
The lower the T% value, the more orderly and
ring-yarn-like the fibre orientation is in the rotor
yarn. High T% values indicate a more disorderly
rotor yarn structure and the presence of wrapper
fibres. Rotor yarns of 100% cotton exhibit T%
values between near 0 and -20%, while
polyester/cotton blends measure between -10 and
-45% (Deussen 1993, p.27).

Figure 2.8 Formation of a wrapper with two ends twisted in opposite

direction (Nield 1975, p.34)
 In ring spinning, fibre alignment is carried out right
up to the point of twist insertion, and fibres are
straight and parallel to each other when twist is
inserted. In rotor spinning, fibre alignment is achieved
to a less extent than in ring spinning. Poor fibre
alignment may occur as fibres impinge on the sliding
wale of the rotor, as they lie in the rotor groove
(unlike in ring spinning, fibres are not under tension in
the twist zone in the rotor groove). This, together with
the formation of wrapper fibres, means that rotor spun
yarns are usually weaker than comparable ring spun
yarns, and a higher twist plus more fibres in yarn
cross section is necessary to increase the strength of
rotor spun yarns. A minimum of 90 fibres is necessary
in rotor spun yarns, compared with a minimum of 40
for ring yarns. So in the fine yarn market, rotor
spinning can not compete with ring spinning.
 Another important feature of rotor spun yarns is their
good evenness. As mentioned before, fibres are
deposited in the rotor groove in layers. The number
of doublings is quite large, which tends to even out
the short-term irregularities and improve the
evenness of the resultant yarn. The number of
doublings can be calculated using the equation below:
Yarn twist (tpm)  rotor circumference (mm)
No. of doublings(in rotor groove) 
1000
Table 2.1 summaries the characteristics of rotor spun
yarns in comparison with ring spun yarns.
Table 2.1 A comparison of rotor and ring yarns
Rotor Yarn Compared to Ring Yarn Reason
_______________________________________________________
__
Production rate much higher Higher twist rate
Package size 20 times greater No ring
Twist level 10-15% higher Structure
Strength 15-20% weaker Fibre orientation
Extensibility 10% higher Fibre orientation
Regularity 10-20% better Doubling in rotor
Handle harsher Wrapper fibres,
Higher twist
Abrasion 20-30% better Wrapper fibres
Yarn count coarser Weaker
Fibre type short staple mainly Wrapper fibres
Hairiness Lower Higher twist,
Wrapper fibres
________________________________________________________________
____
This comparison highlights differences made by the
presence of wrapper fibres. The fewer the number of
wrapper fibres in a rotor spun yarn, the more closely
the rotor spun yarn resembles the structure of ring
spun yarns. This has been the aim that drives further
developments in rotor spinning technology.
► Selection or spinning components and
parameters
The key components for rotor spinning are the
combing roll, the rotor, and the navel. The combing
roll (or comber roll) opens the feed sliver and
individualises the fibres. The rotor is the twist insertion
element, while the navel adds additional twist inside
the rotor and changes the surface texture of the
resultant yarn.
► Figure 2.9 shows the tooth profiles of combing rolls used
for different fibre materials, and the corresponding
speed range.
► Figure 2.10 shows the yarn count ranges in relation to
rotor diameters and speeds. Small rotors of 30 mm
diameter (K-230) and 31 mm diameter (G-231) are used
primarily for finer yarns and higher rotor speed than
large rotors.
► In figure 2.11, the typical twist multipliers (TM) used for
knitting and weaving yarns of different fibre
compositions are given (note that twist factor = 956.7 x
TM).
► Finally, an explanation of different navels and their
applications is given in figure 2.12.
►
► Figure 2.9 Tooth profiles and speed ranges of combing
rolls (Deussen 1993, p.55)
► Figure 2.10 Yarn count ranges for rotor diameters and
speeds (Deussen 1993, p.57)
► Figure 2.11 Twist multipliers (TM) for weaving and knitting
rotor yarns (Deussen 1993, p.60)
► Figure 2.12 Different navels and their applications
(Deussen 1993, p.62)
► Review questions

► 1.Based on the discussion of the characteristics of

rotor spun yarns, draw a sketch depicting the key
features of a typical rotor spun yarn.
► 2.This question relates to a yarn being spun on a
rotor spinner under the following conditions:
input sliver 5.0 kTex
output yarn 50 tex
diameter of combing roll 70 mm
speed of combing roll 7,000 r.p.m.
rotor diameter 45 mm
rotor speed 100,000 r.p.
yarn delivery rate 200 m/min.
(a)Calculate the yarn twist level (t.p.m) and the twist factor of the rotor yarn,
ignoring the small additional twist due to rotation of the yarn "peeling-off-point".
(b)If the above yarn is made from fibres all of the same length of 25 mm, what
proportion of fibres will end up with some portion of their length in a wrapper
configuration?
(c)In order to reduce the number of wrapper fibres, would it be more effective to
use fibres which are 5 mm shorter, or use a rotor of 5 mm greater in diameter?
Show your reasoning.
(d)Sliver for the above yarn received 2 drawframe passages between carding and
spinning, with 6 doublings at each passage. Calculate the number of doublings
provided during spinning and the total doublings the fibre assembly has received
since carding.
(e)The fibre transport chute (between beater and rotor) has been designed so that
fibres enter the chute at the speed of the beater surface, and are accelerated by air
so that they leave the chute travelling 50% faster. Calculate the average number of
fibres lying across the chute inlet at any one time and the corresponding value at
chute outlet. (Take the linear density of the fibres to be 0.25 tex.)
(f)What are the finest yarns (expressed in Tex and English cotton count) that could
be economically spun from fibres of linear density 0.25 tex on the rotor spinner.
(Hint: consider the minimum nunber of fibres required for a rotor spun yarn).
5 、 In about 1,000 words, compare and contrast the
technology of ring spinning and rotor spinning, with
reference to the economics and yarn quality of each
spinning system.
 Friction spinning 摩擦纺纱
Introduction
Friction spinning belongs to the family of open-end
spinning. Most patents related to friction spinning were
filed in the 1970s and 1980s, many of which were from
Dr Ernst Fehrer in Austria. Today friction spinning is
almost synonymous with the term DREF(Dr Ernst
Fehrer). It has been used to produce yarns usually
much coarser than ring and rotor spun yarns at much
higher production rate, and the yarns have been largely
used for domestic and industrial applications.

This topic discusses the principle of friction spinning in

general, followed by a discussion of the DREF 2 and
DREF 3 friction spinning systems.
Objectives

At the end of this topic you should be able to:

► Explain the principle of friction spinning

► Understand the features of friction spun yarns
► Know the differences between DREF 2 and DREF 3
friction spinning systems
Principle of friction spinning
Friction spinning uses two friction surfaces to roll up
fibres into a yarn. A simplified sketch of friction
spinning is shown in figure 3.1. The fibres flow freely
to two rotating friction drums (spinning drums, friction
rollers, torque rollers). The surfaces at the nip of the
two drums move in opposite direction to twist the
fibres collected in the nip. The yarn is formed from
inside outwards, by the superimposition of twisting of
individual fibres. The yarn is then withdrawn from the
nip to take-up package.

Figure 3.1 A sketch of friction spinning

In friction spinning, the yarn end in the nip of the
friction drums is tapered, just as the yarn tail inside
the rotor groove is tapered in rotor spinning. Fibres
are added continuously to the tapered yarn end as
the newly formed yarn is withdrawn. This is illustrated
in figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 A tapered yarn end in the nip of the spinning drums
It can be envisaged that fibres deposited at the thin
end of the taper will end up in the interior of the
final yarn, while fibre deposited at the thin end will
stay on the surface.

The twisting rate in friction spinning is related to the

drum rpm, drum diameter and yarn diameter as
indicated below.

Drum diameter
Twist (tpm)  Drum rpm   Twisting efficiency
Yarn diameter
Because of the very large ratio between the drum and
yarn diameters, the rotational speed of the drums need
not be high, provided adequate twist efficiency is
achieved. The twist efficiency is reduced due to the
slippage between the yarn in the nip and the drum
surfaces. It is possible to have a twist efficiency as low
as 40%. But even allowing for this, friction spinning is
still the most efficient way of inserting twist to fibres,
because twist is directly applied to yarn end.

Unlike ring spinning and rotor spinning, friction

spinning imposes very little tension to the yarn. So the
ends-down rate in friction spinning is very low and the
yarn can be withdrawn from the nip of the drums at a
very high speed, say 250 m/min. This makes friction
spinning more productive than ring and rotor spinning.
 Similar to rotor spinning, friction spinning uses sliver feed and
tooth drafting. Fibres opened by a toothed roller are directed
towards the nip of the friction drums, at a very high speed. The
fibres should then impinge on the friction surface that is entering
the nip or the rotating mass of fibres in the nip. Because the
velocity of the entering fibres is much higher than the surface
velocity of the drum surface and the rotating mass of fibres in the
nip, fibres are decelerated as they impinge on the drum surface or
the rotating fibres in the nip. This deceleration causes
considerable fibre buckling just before the fibres are incorporated
into the yarn structure. As a result, the fibre alignment in friction
spun yarns is poor, leading to poor strength of friction spun yarns.
Having long fibres does not help yarn strength much in friction
spinning, because the long fibres buckle more readily than short
ones, so their configurations within the yarn structure may not be
as good as shorter fibres. The poor yarn strength also means that
friction spinning can only produce relatively coarse yarns.
 With friction spinning, a core component can be
easily introduced in the nip to make a composite yarn
of a sheath/core composition. Examples of this will be
discussed in the following section on DREF friction
spinning systems.

In this section, we have discussed the basic principle

of friction spinning, and the key features of friction
spun yarns. Next, we will discuss the DREF 2 and
DREF 3 friction spinning systems developed by the
Fehrer company located in Linz, Austria.
DREF 2 friction spinning system

The DREF 2 friction spinning system was introduced

into the world market in 1977. It is designed for
coarse yarn counts in the 100 tex to 4,000 tex range.
The DREF 2 system is primarily used for the recycling
of all types of textile waste fibres and mixtures with
10 -120 mm fibre lengths, and the spinning of
technical and other yarns for specialised applications,
such as blankets, cleaning rags and mops, yarns for
secondary carpet backings etc.
A diagram of the DREF 2 friction spinning system is
shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 DREF 2 friction spinning system (Fehrer AG)

As mentioned in the previous section, toothed
drafting is used in friction spinning. With the DREF 2
system, the feed slivers are opened and drafted by
the teeth of a carding drum. The individualised fibres
are then stripped from the carding drum by
centrifugal force, supported by an air flow. Gravity
and air flow then carry the fibres into the nip of two
perforated spinning drums. Assisted by air suction
through the spinning drums, the fibres in the nip are
twisted by friction on the two drum surfaces to form
the yarn. The yarn is then withdrawn by the take-up
rollers at delivery speeds of up to 250 m/min, and
wound onto a large yarn package.
A filament core can be easily introduced into the nip
of the spinning drums via the core feeding (figure
3.3), to make a composite yarn of a sheath/core
structure. During spinning, the filament core gets false
twisted by the spinning drums, while the staple fibres
are deposited on the false twisted filament to make a
sheath. The staple fibres are twisted as usual. But as
the filament core emerges from the nip of the spinning
drums, the false twist in it is removed automatically,
and the sheath fibres receive a reserve twist in the
process. The resultant composite yarn has the
characteristics of a twistless filament core surrounded
by a sheath of helical wound fibres of varying helix
angles.
The core/sheath effect can also be achieved without
the filament component. As indicated in the previous
section, the yarn in the nip of the spinning drums has
a tapered end, and fibres deposited in the thin end of
the taper are likely to end up in the core position of
the resultant yarn. For example, fibres in the left-most
card sliver in figure 3.3 are likely to stay as core fibres
in the yarn, surrounded by sheath fibres from the
remaining two card slivers. This preferential fibre
arrangement facilitates an economic use of a variety
of raw materials. A 'core' sliver of waste fibres may be
used with other 'sheath' slivers of high quality virgin
fibres to make a quality yarn with reduced raw
material cost.
It is worth mentioning that even if a filament
core is not to be used as part of the final yarn, a
filament is often used to help start the spinning
process. Once started, the filament is then cut
to allow the process to continue without it. This
also applies to the DREF 3 friction spinning
system that is discussed next.
DREF 3 friction spinning system
After the introduction of DREF 2 into the world
market in 1977, Dr Ernst Fehrer began work on the
development of the DREF 3 friction spinning system,
which was first presented to the public at the 1979
international textile machinery exhibition (ITMA'79) in
Hanover. In 1981, DREF 3 entered the global textile
machinery market. DREF 3 is designed for the
manufacture of multi-component yarns in the
medium count range (25 - 667 tex). The yarns have
been used in a wide range of industrial applications,
including fire-resistant protective clothing, aircraft
and contract carpeting, conveyor and transport belts,
composites for aviation and automotive industries
etc.
Figure 3.4 shows a diagram of the DREF 3 friction spinning system.
Figure 3.4 DREF 3 friction spinning system (Fehrer AG)
 There are a number differences between DREF 2
and DREF 3. First of all, toothed drafted is achieved
by two toothed drums in DREF 3 rather than just one
carding drum in DREF 2. Second, another roller
drafting unit (Drafting unit I in figure 3.4) is now
added in DREF 3. This drafting unit will deliver
parallel fibres that will form a core of parallel
fibres in the final yarn, surrounded by the sheath
fibres from drafting unit II (figure 3.4). There is also
the option for the introduction of a filament core as in
DREF 2. Therefore, composite yarns of three different
components can be engineered on the DREF 3
system.
Figure 3.5 shows a side view of the DREF 3 system.

► Figure 3.5 A side view showing the principle of DREF 3

For good doubling effect 并合效应 , fibres slivers
are used as feed slivers. The overall density of the
feed slivers is very high, which means they have to
be fed to the toothed drafting rollers (carding drums)
at a very slow speed. To minimise fibre damage, the
distance between the clamping line of the last pair of
feed rollers and the line of the narrowest clearance
between the two toothed drafting rollers is set at
about one fibre length. In addition, this distance is
adjustable to cater for raw materials of different fibre
length.
As with DREF 2, fibre buckling 纤维弯曲 occurs as
the individual fibres impinge upon the surface of the
spinning drum and the mass of fibres already in the nip
of the two spinning drums. This leads to poor fibre
orientation in the yarn, which reduces yarn strength.
But in DREF 3, the core fibres are of parallel
configuration. So DREF 3 yarns should have higher
tenacity than DREF 2 yarns under similar conditions.

The percentage of core/sheath components can be

easily adjusted with the DREF friction spinning systems.
► Review questions
1.Describe in your own words the principle of friction
spinning.
2.Friction spun yarns do not have wrapper fibres on
the yarn surface. Why are friction spun yarns weaker
than comparable rotor spun yarns?
3.Compare and contrast the differences and
similarities between DREF 2 and DREF 3 friction
spinning systems.
 Air jet spinning 喷气纺纱
Introduction
In the early 1960s, the DuPont company (USA)
patented a method for producing what was called a
fasciated yarn 包缠纱 , which is composed of a core
of more or less parallel fibres, wrapped around by a
small proportion of surface fibres. A false twist air jet
was used as the twister, hence the name air jet
spinning or air vortex spinning. Because the speed of
air vortex can be extremely high, the twisting rate is
very high with air jet spinning, which then leads to
high yarn delivery speed or high production rate.
Today, air jet spinning is almost the most productive
staple spinning technologies.
 DuPont did not pursue its patented method to
commercialisation. Instead, further research and
development on air jet spinning were carried by other
companies. Since the 1980s, the name most widely
associated with air jet spinning has been Murata,
Japan.

This topic discusses DuPont's basic idea of air jet

spinning to make fasciated yarns. This is followed by
a discussion of Murata Jet Spinning (MJS) and the
associated development
Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:

► Understand the basic principle of the Murata Jet

Spinning system
► Appreciate the characteristics of air jet spun yarns
► Know the developments in air jet spinning
Principle of air jet spinning
As mentioned in the introduction, air jet spinning
makes a fasciated yarn with a parallel core wrapped
around by some surface fibres. The original DuPont
process uses one air jet only. Figure 4.1 shows the
principle of the DuPont method, together with a
comparison of fasciated yarn versus conventional ring
spun yarn.

Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of the fasciated yarn spinning system (Hunter 1978, p.16).
The feed sliver is drafted by a roller drafting unit (now shown
in full). The drafted fibres are presented as a flat bundle to the
aspirator and then pass the air jet twister (torque jet). Because
the fibre strand is nipped between the delivery rollers (on the
right) and the front drafting rollers (on the left), only false
twist is inserted into the fibre strand by the air jet twister. At
the air jet twister, the main bundle of fibres are false twisted,
but some fibres at the edges of the fibre ribbon will escape the
twisting effect to some extent.
As soon as the fibres emerge from the air jet, the
main bundle of fibres will untwist to cancel out the
false twist in the bundle. Because of the increased
fibre contact with the main bundle, the edge fibres
will also 'untwist' with the main bundle, and the
amount of untwisting is greater than the initial
false twist these edge fibres received from the air
jet. As a result, the net result is that the edge
fibres will be given a real twist in the opposite
direction to that of the original false twist. This
difference in twist direction is also depicted in
figure 4.1.
An important feature of this process the high rate of
twist, leading to much higher rate of yarn delivery
than the ring and rotor spinning systems. Roving
stage is also eliminated because the jet spinning
systems can spin directly from slivers. Jet spun yarns
are usually weaker than comparable ring spun yarns.

The jet spinning process relies heavily on the clever

manipulation of the edge fibres which refuse to
receive the full initial false twist. This aspect is further
developed by Murata in its own jet spinning systems.
The Murata Jet Spinning concept is discussed next.
Murata jet spinning (MJS)
The Murata jet spinning (MJS) system uses two air jets
rather than one. The direction of air vortex of the two
jets is opposite. The first jet is employed specifically to
manipulate the edge fibres while the second jet (main
jet) is used as the false twist jet. Figure 4.2 shows a
schematic of the Murata jet spinning system.

Figure 4.2 Schematic of Murata jet spinning (MJS) process

(Murata).
 A drawframe sliver is fed from can (1) to a
roller drafting unit (2). A high draft in the range
100-200 is used to attenuate the sliver to a thin
strand of fibres. The fibre strand then proceeds
to the two air jets (3 and 4). The direction of air
vortex in these two jets is opposite to each
other. The intensity of air vortex in these jet is
also quite different, with the second jet (4)
having an air vortex of much higher intensity.
The angular velocity of the air vortex inside the
2nd jet (4) is more than 1 million rpm. Owing to
the intensity of its air vortex, the 2nd jet (4) is
the actual false twist jet and will affect the main
bundle of fibres from the drafting unit.
The first jet (3), on the other hand, will affect the small
number of edge fibres. Because the air vortex inside the
1st jet (3) rotates in the opposite direction to that of the
2nd jet, the edge fibres are twisted by the 1st jet in the
opposite direction to the main fibre bundle. As soon as the
main fibre bundle and the edge fibres emerge from the 2nd
jet (4), the main bundle untwists to cancel out the false
twist it received from the 2nd jet. In the same process, the
edge fibres also 'untwist' with the main bundle. Because
the direction of 'untwisting' is the same as the direction of
the twist these edge fibres received from the 1st jet, the
edge fibres actually receive a boost of real twist, allowing
them to wrap tightly around the now parallel main fibre
bundle. The distribution of twist in the fibre strand is
depicted in figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 Distribution of twist in the whole fibre strand (Klein 1993, p.14)
 Since the installation of the 1st Murata jet spinner in
USA, this technology has achieved considerable
market penetration. Today, it is used to spin yarns in
the count range Ne 10 to Ne 80 (7.5 to 59 tex), at a
yarn delivery speed of about 200 m/min. Fibres used
include 100% cotton, synthetics, and their blends
(fibre length up to 2 inches).

Compared with ring spun yarns, the Murata air jet

spun yarns are usually weaker, stiffer and harder,
but they have a lower tendency to pilling and
snarling.
Developments in air jet spinning

Two major developments in this field are from

Murata - the Murata Twin Spinner (MTS) and the
Roller Jet Spinner (RJS).

► Murata Twin Spinner (MTS)

The Murata twin spinner produces an assembly
wound air jet spun yarns directly on the spinning
frame 环锭细纱机 .
Figure 4.4 shows the process of Murata twin spinner.
The principle of yarn formation is exactly the same
the Murata jet spinning discussed in the previous
section. Rather than making one air jet spun yarn,
two single air jet spun yarns are produced from two
feed slivers. Upon emerging from the air jets, these
two single yarns are brought together, cleared if
necessary by a yarn clearing device, and assembly
wound onto a large package. The assembly wound
package is usually twisted with a two-for-one twister
to form a quality 2-folded yarn or doubled yarn.

Figure 4.4 Murata Twin Spinner (Murata)

► Roller Jet Spinner (RJS)
This is a relatively new development. Again the basic
principle is similar to Murata jet spinning. But only
one jet is used, the 2nd false twist jet is replaced by a
pair of twisting rollers, called the balloon rollers. The
rotation of the balloon rollers not only inserts false
twist to the main fibre bundle, they also drive forward
the yarn at a predetermined delivery speed. A
schematic diagram of the balloon rollers is shown in
figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 The balloon rollers used in RJS

The roller jet spinner (RJS) can achieve a yarn delivery
speed of bout 400 m/min, making it the most
productive staple spinning system in commercial
production. A notable feature of the roller jet spun
yarns is the very low yarn hairiness level. This is
because of the rolling of surface fibres on the yarn by
the surfaces of the balloon rollers.

The reading material "Murata: RJS Spinning for

Coarse Counts" by Murata Machinery Ltd briefs
explains the principle of roller jet spinning, and
compares the relevant yarn and fabric performances.
► Review questions
1.Rotor spun yarns have wrapper fibres and
Murata jet spun yarns also have wrapping fibres
binding the yarn together. What is the main
difference between the structures of yarns
produced by these two spinning systems?
2.The following diagrams show the process flow-
chart for making two-folded (two-plied) ring and
rotor spun yarns from cotton fibres. Please
sketch the processing flow-charts for making
two-folded cotton yarns from Murata Jet Spinner
(MJS) and Murata Twin Spinner (MTS).
3 、 There are a number of spinning systems that
are not discussed in this module. These
spinning systems, while not as commonly used
as the ones discussed in this module, are
nevertheless worth knowing. Please consult
the relevant library resources at Deakin and
class handouts, explain (with the help of
sketches) the working principle of each of the
following spinning systems:
(1)Wrap spinning 包缠纺纱
(2)Self-twist spinning 自捻纺纱
(3)Mule spinning 走锭纺纱
(4)Woollen ring spinning 粗梳毛纺
 Filament Yarn Texturing
Introduction
Manufactured fibres have been used increasingly, often
at the expenses of a declining share of natural fibres.
Manufactured fibres can be produced in various forms -
tape, mono-filament, multi-filament, and tow. Figure
5.1 shows an overview of the production and
subsequent processing of manufactured fibres
Figure 5.1: An overview of manufactured fibre production and processing
 Different dies or spinnerets are used to extrude the various forms of manufactured
fibres. For example, to make a tape yarn, the polymer material is extruded as a thin
sheet first, which is then slit into flat and narrow tape yarns for applications such as
carpet backing, sacks and packing bags. Manufactured fibres can also be extruded as
a think bundle of continuous filaments known as a tow, which is subsequently cut or
stretch broken into staple fibres for processing on their own or in blends with other
fibres on conventional short staple or long staple processing systems. But most
commonly, manufactured fibres are extruded as continuously multi-filament yarns.
The majority of multi-filament yarns that we use today are polyester and nylon. In
making these yarns, the polymer chip is melt by heat and extruded through a series of
tiny holes in a spinneret. The filaments are then brought together and drawn to align
the molecular chains in each filament to improve the strength of the resultant multi-
filament yarn. Depending on the level of drawing, the resultant multi-filament can be
a partially oriented yarn (POY) or a fully oriented yarn (FOY). Up to this stage, the
yarn is often referred to as producer filament yarn, smooth filament yarn, and flat
filament yarn. Such a yarn is generally unsuitable for apparel applications. Owing to
the smooth surface of individual filaments, the filaments are closely packed together,
with little bulk and extension. Fabrics made from these yarns are slippery, have poor
breathability and handle. To overcome these drawbacks, the filaments are either
converted into staple fibres first for processing on conventional wool or cotton
processing machinery, or are textured through a filament yarn texturing process.
For information on converting continuous filaments to staple
fibres, please raed the reading "Tow-to-sliver conversion and
bulked acrylic yarn production" by Oxtoby (1987, p.232). Please
note that "tow-to-sliver" conversion is also known as "tow-to-
top" conversion. Furthermore, a similar technique to bulked
acrylic yarn production has also been used to produce bulky
yarns from wool fibres.

This topic focuses on the texturing of continuous filament yarns.

Textured yarns in comparison with the original smooth filament

yarn show increased bulkiness, porosity, softness, and some of
them also possess high elasticity. Garments made from textured
yarns are comfortable to wear. They are noted for good draping
qualities. They have good air permeability and thermal insulation
properties. They are more absorbent and allow less static build-
up than the original smooth filament yarn. Textured yarns may
be in different forms, depending on the texturing process used.
The basic principle of texturing is to introduce arcs,
crimps, or loops into the smooth structure of
continuous filament yarns. Different processes have
been developed for this purpose. The two commonly
used processes are false-twist texturing and air-jet
texturing.
Objectives
At the end of this topic you should be able to:

► Understand the process of 'tow-to-top' conversion

and the production of bulked acrylic yarns
► Understand the objectives of filament yarn
texturing
► Know the principle and process false twist texturing
► Know the principle and process of air jet texturing
False-twist Texturing
► Principle and process
Filament yarns like polyester and nylon and thermoplastic. They soften and
can be easily deformed with the application of heat; and upon cooling, the
filaments remain in their deformed state (i.e. the filaments become heat-
set). Normally if filaments are twisted, torsional stress develops in the
filaments and the filaments will want to untwist to release the stress.
However, if such filaments are twisted and heat-set (i.e. heated above their
glass transition temperature and then cooled below their glass transition
temperature), their torsional stress will be relaxed and the filaments will
remain twisted even though the external force is removed. If these
filaments are then untwisted, stress will develop again in the individual
filaments. If these stressed filaments are allowed to relax, they will seek
the minimum-energy-state (or least stressed state!) by forming
adjacent helices and snarls. These helices and snarls prevent the individual
filaments from staying as closely packed as before and the filaments will
occupy a much greater volume than before. In other words, the filaments
become bulky and textured. This process is illustrated in Figure 5.2
Fig. 5.2 Principle of filament texturing by twisting, heat-setting and untwisting
In the early days of filament yarn texturing, the three
steps of twisting, heat-setting, and untwisting are carried
out in separate stages as indicated in figure 5.3. This
traditional process has now become obsolete. But the
principle has been used in modern continuous false twist
(FT) texturing processes.
Figure 5.3: Traditional filament yarn texturing with separate twisting, heat-
setting, and untwisting stages
In principle, continuous false-twist (FT) texturing is very
similar to a dynamic false-twisting process, as indicated in
figure 5.4. The main difference is that in FT texturing,
heating setting is involved. This is also why FT texturing
can only work on thermoplastic filaments. Non-
thermoplastic filaments, such as glass filaments, can not
be false-twist textured.
Fig. 5.4 Difference between stationary false twisting, dynamic false twisting, and
false-twist texturing
A typical false-twist texturing process is shown in Figure 5.5.
Without the second heating process, the textured
yarn is called a stretch yarn, which is bulky and
stretchy. The stretch yarn is suitable for hosiery and
sportswear (track-suiting, stretch pants, and
swimwear etc). If less stretch is required, the yarn
can pass through a 2nd heater under controlled
tension. This results in a modified stretch (or set)
yarn, which retains certain bulk, but with much
reduced extensibility, suitable for outwear
applications.
Figure 5.6 shows the possible processing routes from filament extrusion
(spinning) to textured yarn.

1 - spinning, 2 - drawing, 3 - texturing

Route A: 3-step process (Spin undrawn yarn conventionally + Draw +
Texture)
Route B: Spin-Draw + Texture
Route C: Spin + Sequential Draw Texture
Route D: Spin + Simultaneous Draw Texture
Route E: Spin-Draw-Texture (under development)
Figure 5.6 Possible processing routes from extrusion (spinning) to textured
yarn (Hes and Ursiny 1994, p.24)
► False twist devices

A key element of a false-twist texturing system is the

actual false-twister. The false twister should satisfy
the following requirements:
► Grip yarn well to rotate it
► Allow yarn to travel through
► Insert twist at high speed, and
► Easy to thread up
(A) Pin-spindle false twister
This is a hollow spindle with a horizontal pin made
of ceramic or sapphire. The filament is threaded
across the pin. The hollow spindle is driven via
frictional contact with large rolls at speeds up to
1,000,000 rpm, and each rotation of the spindle (and
the pin) will insert one turn of twist into the filament.
Figure 5.7 shows a pin false-twist spindle.
Figure 5.7: Pin spindle false twister (McIntyre and
Daniels 1995, p. 247)
(B) Stacked disk type false twister
This is the most widely used false twister in filament
yarn texturing. It consists of three sets of stacked
disks mounted on three shafts (figure 5.8), through
which the filament yarn runs. The rotation of the
disks not only inserts twist into the filament, but also
drives the filament through the disks. By setting the
surface speed ratio between the disk and the yarn
(the D/Y ratio) correctly, equal yarn tension can be
achieved at both sides of the false twister. For easy
threading of the filament, one disk shaft is movable
while the other two are fixed.
Figure 5.8 Stacked disc type false twister (McIntyre and
Daniels 1995, p. 144)
(c) Crossed-belts false twister
As shown in figure 5.9, this false twister has two
belts crossed at a specific angle. The filament yarn
is twisted and driven between two belt surfaces by
the rotation of the belts. It is said to give a soft yarn
texturing with little yarn damage. This type of false
twister is difficult to work with fine denier filaments
(eg. <78 dtex).
Fig. 5.9: A crossed-belts type false twister
(D)Ring false twister (disk-sandwich twister)
This false twister consists of two off-setting rings
or disks rotating in opposite direction, with the
filament yarn running between the rings. One of
the rings is rigid while the other is flexible. At the
yarn input end, a presser presses on the flexible
ring so that the yarn can be twisted as the rings
rotate. Similar to the crossed-belts, the rotation of
the rings also provides a 'driving force' that drives
the yarn through the rings. Figure 5.10 shows two
diagrams of a ring false twister.
Figure 5.10: A ring false twister (Demir and Behery 1997,
p.90)
(E) SZ simultaneous texturing twister
This is a new development, released by Muratec
(Japan) at the 1995 international textile machinery
exhibition (ITMA'95) held in Milan.

It works on two filaments simultaneously, inserting

S twist in one filament and Z twist in the other. The
two filaments are then combined and wound onto
the same package. The resultant textured yarn is
claimed to have high bulkiness, and is torque-free
(balanced).
Figure 5.11 shows the SZ twister and the actual texturing process using this type of
twister.
Figure 5.11 A SZ simultaneous twister (a) and the texturing process (b) (Courtesy
of Muratec, Japan)
Air-jet Texturing
► Principle and process
Air-jet texturing is a versatile process. It works with
both thermo-plastic (eg. Polyester and nylon) and
non-thermoplastic (e.g. rayon, glass filament)
filaments. In air-jet texturing, yarn morphology is
modified without disturbing the internal structure of
individual filaments. This is achieved by creating loops
and air pockets in the yarn by opening up the yarn
structure, buckling the filaments, and locking up the
structure again.
 The principle of loop formation in air jet texturing
can be described as:
► Overfeed the filament yarn into an air nozzle
► Open the feed yarn (or parent yarn) in a turbulent
air stream
► The air stream displaces the filaments, and convert
the excess length into loops
► interlace filaments to stabilise the loop structure
Figure 5.12 depicts the principle of air-jet texturing.

Fig. 5.12: Sketch of an air jet texturing process

 Wetting of the filaments before the air nozzle is used
for the following reasons:
► to reduce between-filament friction
► to reduce friction between filaments and nozzle wall
► to improve separation of filaments
► to get better texturing effect with smaller and more
even and frequent loops
A yarn with good textured effect is shown in figure
5.13 below.

Figure 5.13: An air jet textured yarn with good texturing effect
Figure 5.14 shows example photos of dry and wet textured yarns,
while figure
5.15 shows a series of high-speed still photograph of yarn being
textured under wet conditions.
Fig. 5.14: Photos of dry and wet textured yarns (Demir & Behery,
1997, p.276)
Figure 5.15: High-speed still photograph of yarn being textured under
wet conditions (Demir & Behery, 1997, p.249)
As can be seen from figure 5.13, air jet textured yarn
closely resembles a spun yarn, with the protruding
loops mimicking surface hairs of a spun yarn. For this
reason, air jet textured yarns have found applications
in a wide range of products, such as jackets, shirts,
blouses, suits, outwear, furnishing fabrics etc.
► Air nozzles
Many different air jet texturing nozzles have been
developed and the development is continuing.

The reading material "Air-jet texturing: Effect of jet

type and some process parameters on properties of
air-jet textured yarns" by Kothari and Timble (1991,
p.29) gives a good account on the history of air-jet
development, as well as on the test of air-jet
textured yarns.
► Other possibilities with air-jet texturing
Apart from being a versatile texturing process, air-jet
texturing also offers considerable scope for
engineering quite different yarns.

First of all, the linear density of air jet textured yarns

can be easily changed by changing the level of
overfeed into the air nozzle. A higher overfeed will
lead to a heavier textured yarn.
Secondly, co-texturing is possible by feeding two or
more filaments yarns together. By having different
overfeeds for the different yarns, a core-and-effect
yarn can be produced. The yarn with a lower
overfeed will stay in the centre as the core while that
with a higher overfeed will stay predominantly on the
surface. Figure 5.16 shows the process of producing
a core-effect yarn using three feed yarns.

Figure 5.16: Core-effect textured yarn production (Demir & Behery, 1997, p.214)
The loops of air-jet textured yarn can also be broken
after textured with a loop breaker as shown in figure
5.17. In this process, the air textured yarn wraps
around several rolls in succession so that protruding
loops of the incoming yarn are rubbed by the
outgoing yarn and thereby broken up. The resultant
yarn is called a Texspun yarn （变形纱） , because
the free fibre ends of this textured yarn give the yarn
a very spun-like appearance.
Figure 5.17: A Texspun process
►Intermingling/Interlacing （交络纱）

In staple spun yarns, twist is used to hold the fibres

together in the yarn. In multi-filament continuous
yarns, there is very little cohesion between individual
filaments in the yarn, and filaments separate easily.
Even after texturing, the yarns still lack inter-filament
cohesion. Consequently, the tendency for individual
filaments to separate has caused problems in
subsequent winding and weaving processes. While
twist can be used to impart inter-filament cohesion, it
is not a very efficient and is costly. The favoured
approach in the synthetic fibre industry is the
intermingling or interlacing process.
So what is the intermingling process then?
Intermingling is a process of imparting inter-
filament cohesion by entwining the filaments
instead of or in addition to inserting twist. The
entwining is usually achieved by passing the yarn
under light tension through the turbulent zone of an
intermingling or interlacing jet (nozzle).

A simple intermingling nozzle is shown in figure

5.18. It consists of a yarn channel, and an air inlet
in the centre of the channel. The compressed air
impinges on the traversing yarn vertically and
entwining the yarn at regular intervals.
Figure 5.18: Simplified representation of the intermingling process
Intermingling has become a very efficient and low-
cost way of imparting cohesion to multi-filaments. It
has been used in many fields where inter-filament
cohesion is required. Figure 5.11(b) shows the use
of an interlacing nozzle in false-twist texturing. The
use of intermingling in other processes is depicted
in figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19: Applications of the intermingling
process (Demir and Behery 1997, p.310)
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
1.Compare and contrast false twisting texturing with
air-jet texturing. You should make reference to
differences in filament input, the texturing process,
and the resultant yarn. You can use sketches to
help explain the points.
2.Briefly describe the objective, principle, and proces
s of filament intermingling.