Unit-2:

Data Communication Principles

Unit 2: Data Communication principles LH 4
2.1 Basic Concept: Signal, Frequency, Amplitude,
Bandwidth, Digital signal, Analog signals, Digital data
and analog data, Transmission Impairments, Channel
capacity, Overview of analog and digital transmission,
Synchronous and asynchronous transmission
2.2 Data Encoding
2.2.1 Digital data and digital signals- NRZ-L, NRZI,
Manchester
2.2.2 Digital data and analog signals- ASK, FSK, PSK,
QPSK
2.3 Multiplexing Techniques ( FDM, TDM, WDM)
Basic Concepts
Signals
- It is a method or means of conveying information about
phenomenon (event).
- Signal may be defined as a function of one or more
independent factors like time, position, distance, etc that
has some information about the phenomenon.
- Signal is defined as any physical or virtual quantity that
varies with time or space or any other independent
variables.
- In data communication it can be refers to any time
varying voltage, current or electromagnetic wave that
carries information.
- In data communication, data must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals before it is transmitted.
Introduction to Data Communications
Digital data and analog data
Digital data
 A digital signal can have only limited number of defined
values.
 It refers to information that has discrete states. For example,
digital clock suddenly changing from 8:59 to 9:00.
 Digital data takes discrete values (fixed, certain values). For
example, data stored in computer memory in the form 0's and
1's.
 Digital data can be converted to digital signal or modulated to
analog signal to transmit data through a medium.
Introduction to Data Communications
Digital data and analog data
Analog data
 It refers to information that are continuous. They take
continuous values on some interval. For example: audio
signals and video signals.
 Analog data like sounds made by human voice take on
continuous values,
 When someone speaks, analog wave is created in the air. This
can be captured by microphone and converted to analog
signal and then converted to digital signal.
Analog Signal
 An analog signal is a continuous wave that keeps on changing
over a time period i.e. analog signal signals has infinitely many
levels of intensity over a period of time.
 As the wave moves from one value to another value, it passes
through and includes an infinite number of values along its
path.
 There are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal. We can
say that analog signal is continuous signal where signal
strength (intensity) values changes smoothly.
 Examples: voice signal over a telephone line.
Analog Signal
Value

0 time
Digital Signal
 Digital signals also carry information like as analog signals,
however digital signal is discontinuous.
 So, digital signal is discrete signal where the signal
intensity maintains a constant level for some period of
time and instantly changes to another constant level.
 Discrete signals have discrete states (having definite set of
possible values) and take the discrete values.
 We can say for example, data stored in 0 and 1 in
computer memory.
 So digital signals have only limited number of values.
Digital Signal
Value

time

Value
Periodic and nonperiodic signals
 Both analog and digital signals can take one of the two
forms: periodic or non-periodic (also called as aperiodic).
 Periodic signal completes a pattern within measurable
time frame called period and repeats that pattern over
subsequent identical periods.
 Completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.
 Whereas non-periodic signal changes without repeating
the same previous pattern.
 Periodic analog signals are mostly in data communication
as they need less bandwidth whereas non-periodic digital
signals are used as they can represent variation in data.
Periodic and non-periodic signals
First cycle In Periodic analog
signal same
pattern of wave is
0 time
repeated over a
period of time.
Fig: Periodic analog Signals

In non-Periodic
0 time analog signal
pattern of signal
changes
frequently over a
Fig: Non-Periodic analog Signals period of time.
Periodic Analog signals
 Periodic analog signals are of two types: simple or composite.
 A simple periodic analog signal cannot be further split into simple
signals i.e. it contains a sine wave.
 Whereas, in composite periodic analog signal it contains multiple
sine waves.

Sine wave
 Sine wave is a periodic analog signals. It is also called as sinusoidal
wave.
 It can be view as a curve representing periodic oscillations of
constant amplitude given by sine function.
s(t) = A sin(2πft + )
 Sine wave can be represented by three parameters: peak
amplitude, frequency and phase.
Sine wave: Period and Frequency:
- Period is the amount of time, in seconds, that a signal need to
complete 1 cycle.
- Frequency is the number of cycle of periods in 1 seconds.
- So, frequency is the rate of repetitions of a signal's waveform in a
second.
- Frequency is expressed in hertz.
- Frequency is the inverse of time. i.e. f=1/t

1 cycle 2 cycle 3 cycle 4 cycle

Since, there is 4 cycle in 1 second, so the frequency is 4 hertz whereas period is

time to complete 1 cycle. So period is ¼ second to complete one cycle.
SineWave: Period and Frequency:
- Period is expressed in seconds where as frequency is expressed in
hertz
- Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.
- Change in short span of time means having high frequency and
change over a long span of time means low frequency.
Sine Wave: Amplitude
 Amplitude is the maximum displacement of a particle
from its mean position.

Crest
Amplitude
Mean position

Amplitude
trough

 When the displacement of the medium is at maximum

then it is called as crest
 A trough is the opposite of crest which represent the
minimum or lowest point in a cycle.
Sine wave: Amplitude
- Peak amplitude:
 The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of
its highest intensity proportional to the energy it
carries.
 For electric signals peak amplitude is measured in
volts.

Peak
Amplitude

Amplitu
de
Sine wave: Phase
 Phase refers to the position of waveform relative to time 0.
 Phase is measured in degree or radians i.e. 360 degree or 2
rad where 2 is equal to 360 degree.
 Phase shift of 3600 corresponds to a shift of a complete
period/cycle, a phase shift of 1800 corresponds to a shift of
one half of the period/cycle and phase shift of 90 0
corresponds to a shift of one quarter of a period/cycle.
 00 900 1800 2700 3600 (00) Phase shift
 The cycle of a sine wave
begins at zero degrees
3 at the level of zero.
 Then the waves rises to
2 its positive maximum at
900 i.e. ¼ of the period.
1  Then it has fallen back
to a level 0 at 1800.
Level

0  Then wave continues to

its negative maximum
-1 at 2700 three quarters
of its period.
-2  Then finally it rises back
to zero level.
-3  This point can be
described as a end of a
cycle at 360 degree or
0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 as the beginning of the
Period of one cycle next cycle back to zero.
Bandwidth
 The range of frequencies contained in a composite signal is its
bandwidth.
 The bandwidth is normally a difference between two numbers. For
example: if a composite signal contains frequencies between 1000
and 5000 then its bandwidth is
5000-1000=4000
 Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be transferred from one
point to another within a network in a specific amount of time. It is
measured in bits per second.
WaveLength
 Wavelength is the distance between two successive crest of a
wave.
 Wavelength binds the period or the frequency of a simple sine
wave to the propagation speed of medium.
 If propagation speed and the period of signal is given, then
wavelength can be calculated as:
wavelength=propagation speed × period
 While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium,
wavelength depends on both the frequency and the medium.
 In data communications, we often use wavelength to describe the
transmission of light in an optical fiber.
Time and Frequency domains
 The time domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with
respect to time (also called as amplitude versus time plot).
 In time domain plot phases are not explicitly shown.
 Similarly, to show the relationship between frequency and
amplitude, we can use frequency domain plot.
 A frequency domain plot is only concerned with peak value and
frequency. Changes of amplitude during one period are not shown.
 A complete sine wave that is represented in time domain can be
represented by one spike in frequency domain.
 It is better to use frequency domain when we have to deal with
composite signal.
Time and Frequency domains
Digital Signal
 As we have discussed, digital signals also carry information like as
analog signals, however digital signal is discontinuous.
 So, digital signal is discrete signal where the signal intensity
maintains a constant level for some period of time and instantly
changes to another constant level.
 Digital data can be represented by digital signals with different
voltage level for example 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage
and 0 as a zero voltage.
 However, digital signal can have more than two levels. For this case,
we can send more than 1 bit for each level.
 We can calculate the number of bits required per level by 2n. For
example, a digital signal has eight levels. Then, it requires 3 bits to
represent eight level as we know 23=8.
Digital Signal
Digital Signal: Bit rate
 As most of the digital signals are non periodic and thus period and
frequency are not appropriate characteristics.
 So we use the term bit rate instead of frequency.
 Bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1 second and can be
expressed as bit per seconds (bps).
Digital Signal: Bit length
 Bit length in digital signal is like a wavelength for analog signal.
 Bit length is the distance one bit occupies in transmission medium.
 To calculate the bit length
bit length=propagation speed × bit duration
Digital Signal: Baud rate
 It is the number of signal elements transmitted per second. Here
signal element is signal with constant amplitude.
 [Note: for analog signals 1 signal element is signal with same
amplitude, phase and frequency]
 The higher the baud rate, the more bits per second that are
transferred.
 If the information unit is one baud (one bit) then the bit rate and
baud rate are identitical.
 Finally we can say baud rate signifies how many times a signal
changes per second.
 Bit rate signifies how many bits can be send per time unit.
Digital Signal as a composite analog signal
 A digital signal in time domain, comprises connected vertical and
horizontal line segments. A vertical line in the time domain
represent the frequency of infinity( sudden change in time).
 Based on Fourier analysis, digital signal is a composite analog signal.
 Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal.
 When digital signal is periodic, the decomposed signal has a
frequency domain representation with infinite bandwidth (can
transmit signal in any range) and discrete frequencies.

fig: Time and frequency domains of periodic digital signal

Digital Signal as a composite analog signal
 When the digital signal is non-periodic the decomposed signal also
have infinite bandwidth but frequencies are continuous.

fig: Time and frequency domains of non-periodic digital

signal
Transmission of Digital Signal
 Sequence of voltage pulses i.e. digital signal is transmitted over a wire
medium.
 Both analog signals and digital data from source are converted into
digital form.
 Analog signal can be converted to digital signal using a codec (coder-
decoder), which takes analog signal that directly represents the voice
data and approximates that signal by a bit stream.
 A digital data can directly represented by digital signals.
 A digital signal can be transmitted only a limited distance before
attenuation, noise, and other impairments endanger the integrity of
the data. To achieve greater distances, repeaters are used. A repeater
receives the digital signal, recovers the pattern of 1s and 0s, and
retransmits a new signal. Thus the attenuation is overcome.
Transmission of Digital Signal
 We can transmit digital signal by using two different techniques:
baseband transmission and broadband transmission (using
modulation).
Baseband Transmission:
 In this technique digital signals are send over a channel without
changing digital signal to analog signal.

 We require a low pass channel where channel's bandwidth starts

from zero. Example: Ethernet cable
Transmission of Digital Signal
Broadband Transmission:
In broadband transmission or modulation we change the digital signal
to analog signal for transmission.
Modulation allow us to use a bandpass channel whose bandwidth does
not start with zero.
This type of channel is more available than low pass channel.
Transmission of Analog Signal
 Analog transmission is a means of transmitting analog signals
without regard to their content i.e. signal may represent analog data
like voice or digital data like binary data pass through a modem.
 Analog signals are propagated by means of continuous varying
electromagnetic wave over a variety of transmission media
depending on the frequency.
 Digital data can be represented by analog signals by using modem.
 Modem converts a series of binary voltage pulses into an analog
signal by encoding the digital data onto a carrier frequency.
 The analog signal will become weaker after a certain distance. Then
amplifier is used to strengthen the signal.
 However amplifier also boost the noise components. So, amplifiers
cascaded to achieve long distance, the signal becomes more and
more distorted.
Transmission of Digital and Analog Signal
 Telecommunications facilities and intra-building services are
gradually being converted to digital transmission and where possible
digital signaling techniques because of
 Digital technology: Digital circuits are easy to design and cheaper
than analog signals.
 Digital integrity: With the use of repeaters rather than amplifiers
the effects of noise and other signal impairments are not
cumulative.
 Security and privacy: Encryption techniques can be readily
applied to digital data and to analog data that have been
digitized.
 Integration: by treating both analog and digital data digitally, all
signals have the same form and can be treated similarly.
Channel capacity
 Channel capacity is the rate at which a data can be transmitted over
a given communication path or channel, under the given conditions.
 Channel capacity was depends on four factors:
 Data rate: This is rate at which data can be communicated and is
measured in bits per seconds (bps).
 Bandwidth: This is the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as
constrained by the transmitter and by the nature of the
transmission medium. It is expressed in cycles per second or
hertz. The greater the bandwidth then greater the cost.
 Noise: The average level of noise i.e the quality of channel over
the communication path.
 Error rate: The rate at which errors occur, where error is the
reception of 1 when 0 was transmitted and the reception of 0
when 1 was transmitted.
Channel capacity
 There are two different formula to calculate the channel capacity:
 Nyquist for noiseless channel
 Shannon for noisy channel.
Nyquist Theorem:
 For a noise free channel, data rate is proportional to the bandwidth
of the signal.
 Nyquist states that "if the rate of signal transmission is 2W, then a
signal with frequencies no greater than W is sufficient to carry the
signal rate".
 We can also say that given a bandwidth of W, the highest signal rate
that can be carried is 2B i.e.
C=2W
where, C is channel capacity in bits per second and W is bandwidth
in Hz.
for example, voice channel being used via modem, to transmit digital
data, with bandwidth 3100 Hz, then the channel capacity is
2W=2×3100 =6200 bps.
Channel capacity
Nyquist Theorem:
 But signal with more than two levels can be used where each signal
element can represent more than one bit. With multilevel signaling
the Nyquist formala will be:
C=2W log2 M
 where M is the number of discrete signal or voltage levels.
The drawback of this theorem is that it assumes that the channel is
noise or error free which is not practically possible.
 
Channel capacity
Shannon Theorem:
 It assumes that channel are not noise or error free.
 The maximum data that can be transmitted in error condition is:
C=2Wlog2(1 + SNR)
where C is the channel capacity in bps.
W is the bandwidth in Hz.
SNR is the Signal to Noise ratio
 We can calculate the SNR i.e.

Since SNR is the ratio of two powers, so it can be described in

decibel units as:
SNRdb=10 log10SNR
or,
Channel capacity
Shannon Theorem:
Q: For a satellite TV channel with signal to Noise Ratio 30dB and range of frequencies
600Hz, 800Hz, 1.2Khz and 1.5Khz, find maximum data rate (channel capacity).
Solution,
Given, SNRdB=30dB
frequencies ranges= 600hz, 800 hz, 1.2khz and 1.5 khz
now,
bandwidth(W)=difference between maximum frequency and minimum
frequency
= 1.5khz – 600 hz
= 1500 – 600
= 900hz

= 10(30/10)
= 103=1000
again, using shannon capacity,
maximum data rate = 2W log2(1+SNR)
= 2×900 × log2(1+1000)
= 1800 × log2 (1001)
= 17946bps.
Synchronous and asynchronous transmission
Synchronous Transmission
 Data is sent in the form of blocks or frames so the data unit is frame or
block. Each block may consists of many characters
 In synchronous transmission a common clock pulse is shared between
transmitter and receiver in order to permit synchronized communication.
So the data are transmitted and received at the same time. So this is also
called full duplex transmission.
 The sender and receiver both have a clock which coordinates the signals
being transmitted and received on both side.
 There is no use of start and stop bit so we do not known where the
message gets started and when it stops. We only get the clock pulses
through which we know message has started When we have to transmit
large amount of data continuously then we can use synchronous
transmission.
Synchronous and asynchronous transmission
Asynchronous Transmission
 Data is transmitted byte by byte or character by character so the
data unit is byte/character.
 There are irregular gaps between characters in this transmission
 In asynchronous transmission, both sender and receiver have their
own internal clocks and do not required external common clock
pulse. And the transmission depends on its own synchronization is
slower however it makes transmission cheaper.
 In asynchronous transmission, start and stop bits are specified so
there may be mark bit in between data.
Transmission impairment
• When signal what is received is not what is send is called
transmission impairment.
• Transmission impairment cause the quality of analog and
digital signals to deteriorate.
• The quality of received signal may be impaired due to
attenuation, distortion and noise.
Transmission impairment: Attenuation
 • Attenuation means loss of energy.
• When signals travels from certain medium, it losses some of its
energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium which in turns
converts the electrical energy into heat and radiation. This will
cause in loss of the signal.
• To regain or to amplify the original strength of the signal, amplifiers
are used.
• To show that the signal has lost or gained strength, engineers use
the unit of decibel. Decibel (dB) is used to measure the relative
strength of two signals or one signal at two different points.
• When the decibel is negative then the signal is attenuated and
positive if signal is amplified.
• Decibel can be calculated as:
Transmission impairment: Attenuation
 

• Decibel can be calculated as:

Transmission impairment: Distortion
• Distortion means change in shape or forms of the signal.
• Distortion can occur in composite signal which contain different
frequencies with each signal having its own propagation speed
through a medium and therefore its own delay in arriving at the
final destination.
• Due to this delay, there may be difference in phase if the delay is
not exactly same as the period duration.
• We can say that, signal components at the receiver have phases
different from what they had at the sender.
• So, while receiving the composite signal the shape is not the same.
Transmission impairment: Distortion

Sender side Receiver side

• Let us understand what is in phase and out of phase.
• When two signal (red and black) start at 00 and at level 0, then
complete the cycle at the same time is called in phase.
• In first figure, we can both the signal start at 0 level and at 00. Their
direction is also the same and both the signal has same period(cycle
completion time). So first figure is in in-phase.
• But at the receiving end when one signal is already received and
after a while, another signal is received, then both signal cannot be
started at zero or may not move in same direction at the same
time. So second figure represent out of phase.
• When there is out of phase then there occur distortion.
Transmission impairment: Noise
• Noise is the unwanted signal which tends to interfere with proper
reception and reproduction of wanted signal.
• Noise may corrupt the signal. There are several types of noise for
example: thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, impulse noise.
• Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which
creates an extra signal not originally send by the transmitter.
• Induced noise is the noise generated in a circuit by a varying
magnetic or electrostatic field produced by another circuit.
• Crosstalk is any phenomenon in which signal transmitted on one
circuit or channel of a transmission system creates an undesired
effect in another circuit or channel.
• Impulse noise is a spike ( a signal with very high energy in a very
short time) which comes from power lines, lightening, etc.
Transmission impairment: Noise
• Noise is the unwanted signal which tends to interfere with proper
reception and reproduction of wanted signal.
• Noise may corrupt the signal. There are several types of noise for
example: thermal noise, induced noise, crosstalk, impulse noise.
• Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire which
creates an extra signal not originally send by the transmitter.
• Induced noise is the noise generated in a circuit by a varying
magnetic or electrostatic field produced by another circuit.
• Crosstalk is any phenomenon in which signal transmitted on one
circuit or channel of a transmission system creates an undesired
effect in another circuit or channel.
• Impulse noise is a spike ( a signal with very high energy in a very
short time) which comes from power lines, lightening, etc.
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
• Encoding digital data into digital signal is less complex and less
expensive than digital data to analog signal.
• We can use three techniques for converting digital data to digital
signal:
 Block coding
 Scrambling
 Line coding
• Line coding techniques is always needed whereas block coding and
scrambling may or may not be needed.
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding
• Line coding the technique which can be used to convert binary data
i.e. sequence of bits to digital signal.
• At the sender side digital data are encoded into a digital signal and
at the receiver side digital data are received by decoding the digital
signal.
Characteristics of Line Coding
1. Data element vs signal element
• A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece of
information, which is represented in bit.
• A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal.
• Data elements are what we need to send and signal elements are
what we can send.
• Data elements are those carried and signal elements are the
carriers.
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Characteristics of Line Coding
1. Data element vs signal element
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Characteristics of Line Coding
2. Data rate vs Signal rate
• The data rate is the number of data elements (bits) sent in 1
second. Data rate is represented in bits per seconds (bps). So it is
also called as bit rate.
• Signal rate is the number of signal sent in 1 second. Signal rate is
represented in baud rate. signal rate sometimes called as pulse rate
or modulation rate or baud rate.
3. Baseline Wandering
 In decoding a digital signal, the incoming signal power is evaluated
against the baseline. A long string of 0s or 1s can cause baseline
wandering (a drift in the baseline) and make it difficult for the
receiver to decode correctly.
 A good line coding scheme needs to prevent baseline wandering.
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Characteristics of Line Coding
4. Self synchronization
 In order to correctly interpret the signals received from the sender,
the receiver's bit intervals must correspond exactly to the sender's
bit interval. When the receiver clock is faster or slower, the bit
intervals are not matched and receiver might misinterpret the signal.
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Characteristics of Line Coding
5. DC components
• When voltage level in digital signal is constant for some time, the
spectrum creates very low frequencies which may be around zero
called DC components, this may present problems for a system that
cannot pass low frequencies or system that uses electrical
coupling. For example, telephone line cannot pass frequencies
below 200 Hz.
6. Built in error detection
 Some encoding schemes have the built-in capacity for detecting
error to some extent that occurred during transmission of digital
signal.
7. Complexity
 When we use complex scheme for example, four signal levels then it
will be more difficult for us to interpret than one that uses only two
level.
8. Immunity to noise and interference
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Line Coding
• We can roughly divide line coding schemes into 5 categories:
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Unipolar: RZ and NRZ
• Unipolar scheme, only one voltage level is used other than zero.
• That means voltage of any signal may be zero or one. The positive
voltage defines the 1 bit and zero voltage defines 0 bit.
• We can also say that, presence of pulse represents 1 and absence of
pulse represents 0.
• Unipolar is also called as On-Off Keying or OOK.
Types:
1. RZ (Return Zero)
• In this, the signal return to zero at the middle of the high bit i.e. 1 bit.
So half of the bit duration remains high and then it immediately
returns to zero and shows the zero voltage level for remaining half of
the bit duration.
2. NRZ (Non-Return Zero)
• Traditionally unipolar scheme was designed as NRZ.
• In this, signal does not return to zero at middle of the bit.
 0 1 0 01 1 0 01 1

A
Period
Time
RZ 0

A
Time
NRZ 0
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Polar: RZ and NRZ
• In polar schemes, voltage are on both sides of the time axis. For
example, 1 bit represent positive voltage level and 0 bit represent
negative voltage level.
• We use two level of voltage amplitude other than 0 i.e. positive
voltage and negative voltage.
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Types of Polar:
1. RZ (Return Zero)
• In this, the signal return to zero at the middle of the bit either 0 or 1 bit.
So half of the bit duration remains high or low and then it immediately
returns to zero and shows the zero voltage level for remaining half of the
bit duration.
2. NRZ (Non-Return Zero)
• Traditionally unipolar scheme was designed as NRZ.
• In this, signal does not return to zero at middle of the bit.
• We have two versions of polar NRZ: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
• In NRZ-L (NRZ-Level), the level of voltage determines the value of the bit.
Bit 1 represent the negative voltage and 0 bit represent the positive
voltage.
• In NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of change in the level of the
voltage determines the value of bit. If there is no change, the bit is 0 if
there is a change the bit is 1. This will specify that when 1 bit is
encountered each time we change the phase and when 0 bit is
encountered then there is no need to change the phase.
 0 1 0 01 1 0 01 1
+A
Period
Time
RZ
–A

+A
NRZ-L Time

–A

+A
NRZ-I Time

–A
Data Encoding: Digital to Digital Conversion
Types of Polar:
3. Biphase: Manchester
 Machester is the combination of RZ and NRZ-L.
 In this encoding technique, the duration of bit is divided into two halves.
The voltage remains at one level during first half and moves to other level
in the second half.

 This encoding is a synchronous encoding technique used by physical layer

of OSI to encode the clock and data of a synchronous bit stream.
4. Biphase: Differential Manchester
• Differential machester is the combination of RZ and NRZ-I.
• There is always a transition at the middle of teh bit but bit values are
determined at the beginning of the bit.
• When next bit is 0, then there is transition and when the next bit is 1,
then there is no transition.
Machester 0 1 0 01 1 0 01 1
+A
Time
0

–A

+A
Time
0
–A
Differential Manchester
Data Encoding: Digital Data to Analog Signal
 Converting digital data to a bandpass analog signal is called digital
to analog conversion.
 Bandpass signal is the signal generated after modulation.
 We have three modulation technique for transforming digital data
into analog signal. They are:
1. ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
2. FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
3. PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
Data Encoding: Digital Data to Analog Signal
 Aspect of digital to analog conversion
 Data rate vs Signal rate: Data rate is the number of bits per second and
baud rate is the number of signal elements per second. In digital to analog
transmission, the baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate. The
relationship between data rate and signal rate is:

Where, N is the data rate and r is the number of data element carried in
one signal element
The value of r is r=log2L where L is type of signal element.
 Bandwidth: The required bandwidth for analog transmission of digital data
is proportional to the signal rate. But in case of FSK, it may not so since it
have to add difference between carrier signals.
 Carrier signal: In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high
frequency signal that acts as a base for information signal. This signal is
called carrier signal or carrier frequency.
Modulation or shift keying is the process of modifying one or more
properties of periodic waveform called carrier signal with a modulating
signal which contains information to be transmitted.
Data Encoding: Digital Data to Analog Signal
 
ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)
 ASK is a modulation technique where digital signals change the
amplitude of the carrier wave but phase and frequency of the carrier
wave remains constant.
Based on the level ASK can be categorized into two types:
 Binary ASK
 Multilevel ASK
 Although we can have several levels of signal element, each with a
different amplitude, ASK is normally implemented using only two levels.
This is referred to as binary ASK or On-Off keying (OOK).
 In ASK, two binary values are represented by two different amplitude of
carrier frequency.
 when the data element is 1 then there is presence of signal and when
data element is 0 then there absence of signal.
 Then the resulting signal is

`where, Acos(2fct) is a carrier signal.

 This technique is used to transmit digital data over optical fiber. On
voice grade lines it is typically used only upto 1200 bps.
 However, is at risk to sudden gain changes and is rather inefficient
modulation technique.
Data Encoding: Digital Data to Analog Signal
 
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)
 FSK is a modulation technique where digital signals change the
frequency of the carrier wave but phase and amplitude of the carrier
wave remains constant.
 In FSK, the frequency of the modulated signal is constant for the duration
of one signal element but changes for next signal element if data element
changes. But amplitude and phase remains the same for all signal
element.
Based on the level FSK can be categorized into two types:
 Binary FSK
 Multilevel FSK
 In FSK, two binary values are represented by two different frequencies
near the carrier frequency. The resulting signal is:
 Then the resulting signal is

`where, Acos(2fct) is a carrier signal.

Data Encoding: Digital Data to Analog Signal
FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

 On voice grade lines, it is typically used upto 1200 bps but can also
be used for high frequency (3 to 30 MHz) radio transmission. It can
also be used on even more higher frequencies on LAN that uses
coxial cable.
 FSK is less susceptible to error than ASK.
Data Encoding: Digital Data to Analog Signal
PSK (Phase Shift Keying)
 PSK is a modulation technique where digital signals change the phase of
the carrier wave but frequency and amplitude of the carrier wave
remains constant.
 In PSK, the phase of the modulated signal is constant for the duration of
one signal element but changes for next signal element if data element
changes. But amplitude and frequency remains the same for all signal
element.
Based on the level PSK can be categorized into two types:
 Binary PSK
 Quadrature PSK
 PSK is less susceptible to noise. So, it is more common than ASK and FSK.
Data Encoding: Digital Data to Analog Signal
Figure: PSK (Phase Shift Keying)

 The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in which we have only two signal element,
one with a phase of 00 and the other with a phase of 1800.

1 0 0 1 1 0
Data Encoding: Digital Data to Analog Signal
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying)
 The simplicity of BPSK lead designer to use 2 bits at a time in each signal
element which decrease the baud rate and in turn decrease the
bandwidth. So to solve this problem QPSK came into existence.
 It allows the signal to carry twice as much information as ordinary PSK
using same bandwidth.
 Two bits are modulated at once, selecting one of four possible carrier
phase shifts (0, 90, 180, 270 degrees).
 In QPSK, it uses two different BPSK modulation one
is in-phase and the other quadrature out-of phase.

01 11 10 00 10 11
Multiplexing Technique
 Multiplexing is the process of transmitting a signal from many
channels over a single channel.
 In multiplexing, the signal from 'n' different channels are
combined and the composite signal combination of many signals
is transmitted through a signal transmission channel.
 The signal is multiplexed in sender side and demultiplexed at
receiver side.
 Multiplexer can be used to multiplexing 'n' signals, whereas
demultiplexer is used to demultiplexing the 'n' signals.
 Multiplexing can be broadly categorized into two types: analog
multiplexing and digital multiplexing.
 Analog multiplexing is the process of combining multiple analog
signals into one signal.
 Multiplexing of analog signal is done according to their frequency or
wavelength.
 Digital multiplexing is the process of combining multiple digital
signals into one signal.
Multiplexing Technique
Types of multiplexing

Uses of Multiplexing
- To share bandwidth between
users
- To increase the capacity of
channel
- To make cost efficiency.
- To reduce the number of electrical
connections
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
 It is a analog signal transmission technique in which the signal from
different channels with different frequency are multiplexed and
transmitted over a common transmission channel.
 When signals from different channels with different frequency are
multiplexed, then it share a common transmission channel.
 FDM can be applied when bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than
the combined bandwidth of the signals to be transmitted.
 Then available bandwidth of communication channel first divided into sub
channels of different frequency and each sub channel is allocated to the
users.
 In FDM, signals generated by each sending device (user) modulate
different carrier frequencies and these modulated signals then can be
combined into a single composite signal that can be transported over a
single link.
 We can say that all signals to be transmitted use the same common
channel at the same time but they are allotted different frequencies to
prevent any kind of signal interference.
 Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth guard bands to
prevent signals from overlapping.
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
 Channels can be separated by strips of unused bandwidth guard bands to
prevent signals from overlapping.
 So the bandwidth is divided among users not time. But there is possibility
of cross talk in FDM since all signals are transmitted simultaneously.
 Channel is allocated for each user even if there is no data.
 It is used in broadcasting and cable television.
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
Advantages:
 It transmits multiple signal simultaneously.
 It does not need synchronization between transmitter and receiver.
 Demodulation process of FDM is easy.
Disadvantages
 Communication channel must have large bandwidth
 FDM may suffers from problem of crosstalk.
 It is more susceptible to the noise.
 Intermodulation distortion takes place
 Large number of filters and modulators are required.
WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
 WDM is similar to FDM, except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involves light signals transmitted over fiber optic
channels.
 Like in FDM, we combine different signals with different
frequencies but the frequency are very high in WDM.
 Multiple light source are combine into one single light at the
multiplexer and the reverse at demultiplexer.
WDM (WavelengthDivision Multiplexing)
 For combining or splitting the light source prism is used.
 WDM is use in SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) network in
which multiple optical fiber lines are multiplexed and
demultiplexed.
 New method called dense WDM can multiplex a very large number
of channels by spacing channels very close to one another. It also
provide greater efficiency.

SONET is the American National Standards Institute standard for

synchronous data transmission on optical media. SONET can be utilized
to transmit and multiplex multiple data streams across a fiber optic
cable.
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
 TDM is a digital multiplexiing technique in which the channel/link is
not divided on the basis of frequency but on the basis of time.
 In TDM, Time is shared instead of sharing a portion of bandwidth
i.e. total time available in the channel is divided between several
users.
 Each user is allotted a particular time interval called time slot or
time slice during which the data is transmitted by that user.
 Thus each sending device takes control of entire bandwidth of the
channel for fixed amount of time.
 In TDM all the signals to be transmitted are not transmitted
simultaneously instead they are transmitted one by one.
 Thus each signal will be transmitted for a very short time. One cycle
or frame is said to be complete when all the signals are transmitted
once on the transmission channel.
 The TDM signal is transmitted on the common communication
medium in the form of frames.
TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

 We can divide TDM into two different types:

 Synchronous TDM and
 Statistical TDM.
Synchronous TDM
 In synchronous TDM, each device is given the same time slot to transmit
the data over the link without concerning whether any device has any
data to transmit or not.
 Each device places its data onto the link when its time slot arrives i.e.
each device is given the control of line turn by turn. If particular device
do not want to send data then its time slot remains empty.
 The various time slots are divided into unit/frames and each frame
consists of one or more time slots dedicated to each sending device i.e.
when there is n sending device then there will be n slots in a frame with
one slot for each device.
 In synchronous TDM, data rate of the link is n times faster and unit
duration is n times shorter.
Synchronous TDM: Interleaving
 In synchronous TDM, every device is given the opportunity to
transmit a specific amount of data onto the channel/link.
 Each sending device gets its turn in fixed order and fixed amount
of time. This process is called interleaving.
 TDM can be visualized as two fast rotating switches, one on the
multiplexing side and other at demultiplexing side.
 The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed but in
opposite direction.
Synchronous TDM: Empty Slots
 If source does not have data to send then the corresponding slot in
output frame is empty.

Data Rate Management

 When the data rates are not same, three strategies or combination
of them can be used.
 Multilevel multiplexing
 Multiple slot allocation
 Pulse stuffing
Synchronous TDM
 If source does not have data to send then the corresponding slot in
output frame is empty.

Data Rate Management

 When the data rates are not same, three strategies or combination
of them can be used.
 Multilevel multiplexing
 Multiple slot allocation
 Pulse stuffing
Synchronous TDM
Multilevel multiplexing
 Multilevel multiplexing is a technique used when data rate of an
input line is a multiple of others.

 In above figure we have two input of 20 kbps and 3 inputs of 40

kbps. The first two input lines can be multiplexed together to
provide a data rate equal to last three. The second level
multiplexing can create output of 160 kbps.
Synchronous TDM
Multiple Slot Allocation
 In this, more than one slot in a frame is allotted to a single input
line.

 In above figure we have an input line whose data rate is multiple of

another input. In such 50 kbps data rate can be split into two slots
in the output. For this we can use serial to parallel converter to
make two inputs out of one.
Synchronous TDM
Pulse stuffing
 When data rate of input lines are not multiple integers of each
other then to make them comparable, we can add dummy bits to
input lines. This technique is called pulse stuffing or bit padding or
bit stuffing.
Statistical TDM
 It is also called as asynchronous TDM.
 In this type of multiplexing time slots are not fixed.
 In synchronous TDM, if we have n input lines then there are n slots
in one frame but in statistical TDM it is not the case. In statistical
TDM, if we have n input lines then the frame contains not more
than m slots where m is less than or equal to n.
 The number of time slots in a frame is based on statistical analysis
of number of input lines.
 Number of slots are not fixed or predefined, the slot are allocated
to any of the device that has data to send.
 For this, multiplexer scans various input lines, accepts the data
from the lines that have data to send, fills the frame and then sends
the frame across the link.
 The main thing we have to notice here is that each slot in a frame is
not dedicated to a particular device. It may vary according to frame.
Statistical TDM
Time division Multiplexing: Advantages and
Disadvantages
Advantages
 Full available channel bandwidth can be utilized for each channel.
 Intermodulation distortion is absent as well as problem of crosstalk
is not severe.
 TDM circuitry is not so complex
Disadvantages
 It has narrow band fading so all TDM channels may get wiped out.