ACTIVE FILTERS

 An electric filter is often a frequency- selective circuit that passes a specified

band of frequencies and blocks or attenuates signals of frequencies outside this
band.

 One of the important characteristic of the filters is cut-off frequency. It is

defined as the frequency which separates both pass band and stop band in
frequency response.

 Pass band is the range of frequencies that are allowed by the filter without any
attenuation. Stop band is defined as the band of frequencies that are not
allowed by the filter.
Filters may be classified in a number of ways:
1. Analog or digital
2. Passive or active
3. Audio(AF) or radio frequency (RF)
 Analog filters are designed to process analog signals, while digital filters process
analog signals using digital techniques.
 Depending on the type of elements use in their construction, filters may be classified
as passive or active.
 Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Active filters,
on the other hand, employ transistors or op-amps in addition to resistors and
capacitors.
 For example, RC filters are commonly used for audio or low frequency operation,
whereas LC filters or crystal filters are employed at RF or high frequencies.
Especially because of their high Q value (figure of merit), the crystals provide more
stable operation at higher frequencies.
Advantages of Active filters:
1. Gain and frequency adjustment flexibility: Since the op-amp is capable of
providing a gain, the input signal is not attenuated as it is in a passive filter. In
addition, the active filter is easier to tune or adjust
2. No loading problem: Because of high input resistance of the op-amp, the active
filter does not cause loading of the source or load
3. Cost: Typically, active filters are more economical than passive filters. This is
because of the variety of cheaper op-amps and the absence of inductors.
Applications:
Active filters are most extensively used in the field of communications and signal
processing, they are employed in one form or another in almost all electronic systems
like Radio, television, telephone, radar, space satellites, and bio-medical equipment
are but few systems that employ active filters.
Types of Active filters:
1.Low pass filter
2. High pass filter
3. Band pass filter
i) Wide band pass filters
ii) Narrow band pass filters
 4. Band-reject filter
i) Wide band reject filters
ii) Narrow band reject filters (or) Notch filter
5. All-pass filter
 An ideal filter has zero loss in its pass band and infinite loss in its stop band. But ideal
filter response is not practical because linear networks cannot produce the
discontinuities.
 However, it is possible to obtain a practical response that approximates the ideal response
by using special design techniques.
 Butterworth, Chebyshev and Cauer filters are some of the most commonly used
practical filters that approximate the ideal response.
 The key characteristic of Butterworth filter is that it has a flat pass band as well as
stop band . For this reason, it is sometimes called a flat-flat filter.
 The Chebyshev filter has a ripple pass band and flat stop band, while the Cauer
filter has a ripple pass band and a ripple stop band.
 Generally, the Cauer filter gives the best stop band response among the three.
Frequency response of the various active filters
 First – order Low- pass Butterworth filter
• A First – order Low- pass Butterworth filter that uses an RC network for
filtering.
• The opamp is used in the non-inverting configuration.

First – order Low- pass Butterworth filter a) Circuit b) Frequency response

 
V1 = Vin
J=; -JXc=
V1 = Vin

V1 = Vin

But Vo =(1+) V1
=(1+)
= where fH =

AF = pass band gain of the filter

F = frequency of the input signal
 
Gain magnitude and phase angle equations of the low-pass filter are given by
││ =
ⱷ = -tan-1 () where ⱷ is the phase angle
The operation of the low pass filter can be verifies from the gain magnitude
equation.
at f < fH ; ││≈ AF

at f = fH ; ││ = AF /√2

at f > fH ; ││< AF
Frequency Scaling
Once filter is designed, there may sometimes be a need to change its cutoff
frequency. The procedure used to convert an original cutoff frequency f H to a new
cutoff frequency f`H is called frequency scaling.
  𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
Ratio=
𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

To change the new cutoff frequency, multiply R or C, but not both, by Ratio.

Filter
  Design:
A low-pass filter can be designed by implementing the following steps:

1. Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.

2. Select a value of C less than or equal to 1µF.
3. Calculate the value of R using
R=
4. Finally select values of R1 and RF dependent on the desired pass band gain AF
using AF =1+
 
Design a first order low pass filter at a frequency 3kHz with a pass band gain of 4.
Sol: Given fH

AF = 4
Let C = 0.01µF
R = = = = 5.31kΩ
AF = 1+ = 4
=3
R1 =5kΩ, Rf = 15 kΩ
Second order low pass butterworth filter

Second order low pass butterworth filter a) Circuit b) Frequency response

• A stop band response having a 40dB/decade roll off is obtained with second order
low pass filter.
• A first order low pass filter can be converted in to second order type simply by
using an additional RC network.
• Second order filters are important because higher order filters can be designed
using them.
Second
  order filter design:
A second order low-pass filter can be designed by implementing the following steps:

1. Choose a value of high cutoff frequency fH.

2. Select a value of C less than or equal to 1µF and set R2 =R3 =R and C2 =C3 =C.
3. Calculate the value of R using
R=
4. Finally select values of R1 and RF dependent on the desired pass band gain AF
using AF =1+
First order High-pass Butterworth filter:

First order High-pass Butterworth filter a) Circuit b) Frequency response

First order high-pass filter is formed from a first-order low-pass type by interchanging
components R and C.
For the first-order high-pass filter the output voltage is

 
Vo=(1+) Vin

= where fL =
Where =(1+) = pass band gain of the filter
F = frequency of the input signal(Hz)
 
Hence the magnitude of the voltage gain is
││ =
The operation of the High pass filter can be verifies from the gain
magnitude equation.
at f < fL ; ││< AF

at f = fL ; ││ = AF /√2

at f > fL ; ││≈AF i.e constant

 
Problems:
1. Design a first order high pass filter at a frequency 6kHz with a pass band gain of 8.
Sol: Given fL

AF = 8
Let C = 0.01µF
R = = = = 2.653kΩ
AF = 1+ = 8
=7
Rf = 7R1

R1 =10kΩ, Rf = 70 kΩ
Second order High-pass Butterworth filter:

Second order High-pass Butterworth filter a) Circuit b) Frequency response

A second order high-pass filter can be formed from a second-order low-pass type
by interchanging components R and C.
Band pass filter:
 A band pass filter has a pass band between two cutoff frequencies f H &fL such that fH >fL .

Any input frequency outside pass band is attenuated. fH corresponds to High pass filter & fL
corresponds to Low pass filter.
 Band pass filter is a combination of low pass and high pass filter. Because of cascading of
low pass and high pass filter their gains are multiplied to get overall gain.
Band pass filter is classified into two types
1. Wide band pass filter
2. Narrow band pass filter
This classification is based on quality factor (or) figure of merit (Q) as
If Q >10 - Narrow band pass filter
If Q <10 - Wide band pass filter
 The relation between Q, 3dB band width and the center frequency fc is given by
Q = fc/band width =
Where fc =
Q=
 Wide Band pass filter:

Wide Band pass filter a) Circuit b) Frequency response

 
Wide band pass filter:
To obtain a ± 20 dB/ decade band pass, first order high-pass and first order low pass filters
are cascaded.
Gain of HPF* Gain of LPF = Gain of BPF
Low pass filter design:
Choose
Choose C1 ≤ 1µF

Calculate R1

fH =
Pass band gain A = 1+
 
High pass filter design:
Choose
Choose C2 ≤ 1µF

Calculate R2

fL =
Pass band gain A = 1+
 The voltage gain magnitude of the band pass filter is equal to the product of the voltage
gain magnitudes of the high pass and low pass filters.
││ = * = LPF(gain)*HPF(gain) = BPF(gain)
 Narrow band pass filter:

Wide Band pass filter a) Circuit b) Frequency response

Narrow band pass filter uses multiple feedback and only one op-amp. Compared to all
filters, this filter is unique in following respects:
 It has two feedback paths, hence the name multiple- feedback filter.
 The op-amp is used in the inverting mode.
 This allows only a narrow band of frequencies.
 The narrow band pass filter is designed for specific values of center frequency fc and Q
or fc and bandwidth. The circuit components are determined from the following
relationships.

To simply the design calculations, choose C1 = C2 = C.

 
R1 =

R2 =

R3 =

Where AF =

The gain AF, however, must satisfy the condition

AF <
Another advantage of the multiple feedback filter is that center frequency fc can be
changed to a new frequency fc’ without changing the gain or bandwidth. This is
accomplished by simply changing R2 to R2’ so that
R2’ = R2)2
 
Design a wide band pass filter with cutoff frequency fL = 200Hz and fH = 1kHz with a
pass band gain of 4.
Sol: HPF
Given fL = 200Hz
Let C = 0.1 µF
fL =
R= =
=7.95kΩ
LPF
Given fH = 1kHz
Let = 0.1 µF
fH =
= = = =1.591kΩ
 
AF = AF1.AF2 = 4

AF1= AF2 = 2
1+ = 2
=1
Rf = R 1

Let R1 = 10kΩ; Rf = 10kΩ

Op-amp A3 is inverting summing amplifier, the required condition is R 2 = R3 = R4 = 1kΩ

Rcomp = R2//R3//R4
= 1/3 kΩ = 333Ω
Design a wide band-pass filter with fH=2KHz ,fL=400Hz and a pass-band gain=4.
Calculate Q factor for the filter.
Band reject filter or Band stop filter or Band elimination filter:
Band reject filter or Band stop filter or Band elimination filter:
 
The filter which is used to attenuate frequencies in the stop band, while they are passed
outside this band is called Band reject filter.
Classification
Wide band reject filter Q<10
Narrow band reject filter(Notch filter) Q>10
Wide band reject filter
This filter is constructed from using a low pass filter, high pass filter and summing amplifier
fL>fH
The pass band gain of both high pass and low pass sections must be equal.
   LPF
fH =

HPF
fL =

R2 = R3 = R4 in summing amplifier
Narrow band reject filter:
 
 The filter is used to reject a single frequency is called Notch or Narrow band reject filter.
The most commonly used notch filter is the twin-T network.
 This is a passive filter composed of two T-shaped networks, One T network is made of
two resistors and a capacitor, while the other uses two capacitors and a resistor.
 The notch out frequency is the frequency at which maximum attenuation occurs; it is
given by
fN =

 The passive twin-T network has a relatively low figure of merit Q. The Q of the network
can be increased if it is used with the voltage follower.
 The most common use of notch filter is in communications and biomedical instruments
for eliminating undesired frequencies.
 To design an active notch filter for a notch-filter for a specific notch-out frequency f N ,

choose C ≤ 1µF and then calculate the required value of R from equation of f N .
 
3. Design a band rejection filter with cutoff frequency f H = 400Hz and fL = 2kHz with a
pass band gain of 8.
Sol:
Given fL = 2kHz
Let C = 0.1 µF
fL =
R= =
=795.77Ω
Given fH = 400Hz
Let = 0.1 µF
fH =
= =
=3.97kΩ
 
AF = AF1= AF2 = 8
1+ = 8
Rf = 7 R 1

Let R1 = 1kΩ; Rf = 7kΩ

Op-amp A3 is inverting summing amplifier, the required condition is R 2 = R3 = R4 = 1kΩ

Rcomp = R2//R3//R4
= 1/3 kΩ = 333Ω
All pass filter:

All pass filter a) Circuit b)Phase shift between input and output.
Filter passes all frequency components of the input signal without attenuation, while
providing predictable phase shifts for different frequencies of input signal.
Applications:
 When the signals are transmitted over transmission lines, such as telephone wires, they
undergo change in phase.
 To compensate for these phase changes, all- pass filters are required. The all pass filters
are also called delay equalizers or phase correctors.
 
From the figure it shows that RF = R1

The output voltage Vo of the filter can be obtained by using the

superposition theorem.
Vo = - Vin + ( 1+ )VA

= - Vin + 2 [] Vin

= - Vin + 2 Vin = [-1 + Vin

= Vin []
=
 
││ = = 1
φ= =- –
φ = -2
phase angle between & is function of input frequency ‘f’
f = 0; φ = 0; f = ∞ then φ = -180
lags . If position of R & C are interchanged; the phase shift between input and output is
positive. i.e output leads
Positive phase angle:
Vo = Vin + ( 1+ )VA

= - Vin + 2 [] Vin

= Vin [-1 + 2
 
= [-1 + 2 = [-1 +
= =
││ = = 1
φ= =2
f = 0; φ = 180; f = ∞ then φ = 0
leading phase angle between &