Grammar

Crash
Course

Mrs Borain
English is a funny language

The way we speak is not always

acceptable in formal correspondence.
This poses a problem for most of us, as
we often write “what sounds right”, but
the truth is, sometimes that is not formal
enough, or is even outright wrong.
This presentation will examine a few of
this niggly areas so that we can write
more formally in the future.
Simple sentence structure
Subject – verb - object
All sentences need a subject
and a finite verb. Check to
see if there is a who/what
doing the verb to find your
subject.
Subject + predicate (verb and possibly an object).
 A finite verb can stand alone
and does not need a “helping”
verb.

He(subject)runs (verb).
• All sentences need a finite verb. Infinitive verbs, preceded by “to” e.g.
“to run”, need a finite verb before them. Here’s an example: She
wants to run.
Modal verbs
Which ones might/should/could/must/can I use?
Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs) help
the verb and include modals like
“should” and “must”, which help us
determine whether something is a
suggestion, request, or an order:
Johnny must do his homework / Johnny
should do his homework.

Modal verbs are useful in correspondence as it is obviously more polite

to say that Johnny “should” do his homework, but it would give more
weight to the sentence to say that Johnny “must” do his homework.
 A phrase exists within a sentence conveying
a single idea, but cannot stand alone. It
is also known as a “sentence fragment”
e.g. ..hates getting his hair cut. The
subject is missing, so this is a phrase.
Phrases can act as verbs: The boy passed the exam with flying colours.
Phrases can act as nouns: Every boy on the field had to run the relay.
Phrases can act as adjectives: The boy with the lightning fast reflexes played basketball.
Phrases can act as adverbs of time, place, manner, reason and concession:
Time: The boy got to school at 8 am.
Place: The boy was at school doing his project.
A compound sentence has two or more finite verbs. It is
often made up of two main clauses (which can stand alone
as simple sentences) joined by a coordinating
conjunction.

A complex sentence has a main clause (simple sentence),

and one or more subordinate clauses (which cannot stand
alone). A subordinating conjunction “subordinates” the
clause, so that it now relies on a “main clause” to make
sense.

e.g. Jack was nervous for the interview, and he only had one jacket .

Since his jacket needed ironing, Jack could not wear it to the job interview.
FANBOYS!
Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.
 FOR
AND
NOR
BUT
OR
YET
SO
There are too many subordinating conjunctions to memorise easily, so learn the
coordinating conjunctions and you will know what kind of sentence you are dealing
with. These conjunctions also join main clauses and phrases.

You can use a semi-colon in place of a coordinating conjunction. Do not use a

comma to join two independent clauses – this error is called comma splicing, e.g.
Jack went to the shop, he took his mother’s car. This should read: Jack went to the
shop; he took his mother’s car OR Jack went to the shop, and he took his mother’s
car.
Me or I?
Understanding subject and object in a sentence.
Once you have found the subject (who/what is doing
the action/verb), you can determine when to use “I”
and when to use “me”. The subject does the action,
and the object receives the action.

Subject position = I
Object position = me

• Jack and I went to lunch.

• Jack went to lunch with Sally and me.
Who or whom?
Here we go again…
 Once again, in the subject
position use “who”, and in the
object position use “whom”.
Rearrange the sentence if you
are confused about who is doing
the verb.
To whom are you speaking?
“You” is the speaker, and therefore whom is in the object position. You can rearrange this
sentence if it will help, but it becomes unwieldy: You are speaking to whom?

Who is speaking?
“Who” is the speaker, or subject)
Concord
Making our verb and subject, or subject and subject, “agree”.
 Verb + subject

▪ Every verb in a sentence must agree with its subject:

– singular subject = singular verb
– plural subject = plural verb

▪ Two or more nouns or pronouns joined by ‘and’, the verb is plural:

– eg you and I are, were, have etc.

▪ Subject consists of two nouns, but mean ONE thing, the subject is singular:
– eg bacon and eggs is her favourite breakfast

▪ Two subjects joined by with, or as well as, the verb agrees with the first one:
– eg the hen with the chickens is lost
▪ Two subjects joined by either… or, neither… nor, or or, the verb agrees with the
subject nearest to it:
– eg Neither the pupils nor the teacher is disappointed.
– Neither the driver nor the passengers were hurt.
– The leader or his friends are to blame.

▪ Indefinite pronouns are always followed by a singular verb: each, every, everyone,
everybody, no one, nobody, nothing, something, somebody, everything, anyone,
anything:
– Everybody is invited to the party.
– Everyone of you has done your share.

▪ Be careful, because some indefinite pronouns are plural:

– both, few, many, others
▪ Collective nouns take a singular verb, unless the collective
noun is plural:
– The swarm of bees was aggressive.
– The flocks of birds were impressive in their migrations through the
various weather conditions.

▪ Be careful, because the collective noun might not be the

subject of the sentence e.g.
– Running past the flocks of sheep is exhausting for the sheepdogs.
Active or passive?
When can/should I use the passive voice?
The passive voice is used when we want to focus attention on the person or thing
affected by the action. Normally, the performer of the action, or the agent, comes
first and is made the subject of the verb and then we use the active form of the verb.
The other person or thing is made the object of the verb. Consider these examples:

▪ 'The boss invited her to the party.'

▪ 'The construction company in Station Road employs three hundred
people.'
However, if you want to focus on the
person or thing affected by the action,
you make the person or thing the subject
of the sentence and use the passive
voice:

'She was invited to the party by the

boss.'
'Three hundred people are employed by the
construction company in Station Road.'
When, then, should we use
the passive voice in
preference to the active?
 We often prefer to use the passive
voice when:

We do not know who the agent is:

'I don’t know who did it, but my pet rabbit has been let out.'
'I had the feeling that I was being followed.'

instead of:
'I don’t know who did it, but someone has let out my pet rabbit.'
'I had the feeling that somebody was following me.'
 We often prefer to use the passive
voice when:

When it is obvious to the listener or reader who the agent is:

'I had been instructed to remove all the ash trays.'

'She discovered that she was being paid less than her male colleagues.'

instead of:
'My boss had instructed me to remove all the ash trays.'
'She discovered that the firm was paying her less than her male
colleagues.'
 We often prefer to use the passive
voice when:

When it is not important to know who

the agent is:
'Do you want a lift?' 'No thanks, I’m being collected.'

instead of:
'Do you want a lift?' 'No thanks, someone is collecting me.'
 We often prefer to use the passive
voice when:

When the agent has already been

mentioned:

'In the next session of parliament, new laws will be introduced aimed at
stopping domestic violence.'

instead of:
'In the next session of parliament, the government will introduce new laws
aimed at stopping domestic violence.'
 We often prefer to use the passive
voice when:

When people in general are the agents:

'All the Beatles records can be borrowed from the central library.

instead of:
'You can borrow all the Beatles records from the central library.
Apostrophe Catastrophe
Possession and contraction
• Use the apostrophe [ ’ ] with an s to show
possession: Jacks’s bag, the dog’s tail, the
teachers’ frowns
• Or use the apostrophe to indicate the
letters/spaces removed in a contraction:
she’ d, can’ t, should’ ve
• Use it’s in place of “it is”, and its to indicate
possession.
Tense Tension
Past, present, future plus aspect = huh?
Use present/present perfect tense to
indicate current/regular action.

Present tense: verb + s = singular; verb + Ø = plural.

Present perfect tense: has or have + past
participle

James goes to the library every day where he has

gained academic discipline.
Use past perfect to indicate a past
action that occurred before another
past action.

Past tense: regular = verb + ed; irregular forms vary.

Past perfect tense: had + past participle

James had studied grammar rules for over an

hour before someone mentioned that the test was
only next month.
Use continuous tenses to indicate an
ongoing action that occurs as another
action happens.

continuous tenses: form of be + verb + ing

James was reading when he fell asleep.

Misplaced Modifiers
Where did I put my modifier?
Modifier:
 Can be a word or group of words (phrase).
 A modifier describes, clarifies, or gives more detail
about other words in a sentence.
Misplaced modifier:
 A modifier in the wrong place in a sentence makes a
sentence awkward, confusing, or (unintentionally)
humorous.
Raymond wore his only collared shirt to the job interview, which was
unfortunately stained with yellow mustard.
Which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard is an
adjective clause. In the sentence above, it is describing interview, the
noun in front. But an interview can’t get stained with mustard!

Professor Jones, who was late with another essay, waited for the
slacker student.
Who was late with another essay is an adjectival clause. In this
sentence, it is describingProfessor Jones, the noun before it. But
he’s not the identified slacker! The student is.

Make sure your adjective, or adjectival clause, describes the correct

noun by placing it carefully to avoid ambiguity.
Tricky Words
Spelling and homonym issues.
▪ accept vs except
– Accept is a verb, which means to agree to take something .
– For example: "I always accept good advice."
– Except is a preposition or conjunction, which means not including.
– For example: "I teach every day except Sunday(s)."

▪ advice vs advise Advice is a noun, which means an opinion that someone offers you
about what you should do or how you should act in a particular situation.
– For example: "I need someone to give me some advice."
– Advise is a verb, which means to give information and suggest types of action.
– For example: "I advise everybody to be nice to their teacher."
– Often in English the noun form ends in ...ice and the verb form ends in ...ise.
▪ affect vs effect
▪ Affect and effect are two words that are commonly confused.
– affect is usually a verb (action) - effect is usually a noun (thing)
– Hint: If it's something you're going to do, use "affect." If it's something you've already done
"effect.“
– To affect something or someone.
– Meaning: to influence, act upon, or change something or someone.
– For example: The noise outside affected my performance.
– To have an effect on something or someone
– Note: effect is followed by the preposition on and preceded by an article (an, the)
– Meaning: to have an impact on something or someone.
– For example: His smile had a strange effect on me.
– Effect can also mean "the end result".
– For example: The drug has many adverse side effects.
▪ all right vs alright

– All right has multiple meanings. It can mean ok, acceptable, unhurt.
– The single word spelling alright has never been accepted as standard.
– However, Graham King The Times Writer's Guide 2001 says: If we accept
already, altogether and almost, why not alright? Although it carries with it
the whiff of grammatical illegitimacy it is and has been in common use for
a century ..."
▪ a lot / alot / allot A lot, meaning a large amount or number of people or things, can be used to modify a
noun.

▪ "I need a lot of time to develop this web site."

▪ It can also be used as an adverb, meaning very much or very often. For example:

▪ "I look a lot like my sister."

▪ It has become a common term in speech; and is increasingly used in writing.

▪ Alot does not exist! There is no such word in the English language. If you write it this way - imagine me
shouting at you - "No Such Word!"

▪ Allot is a verb, which means to give (especially a share of something) for a particular purpose:-

▪ For example: "We were allotted a desk each."

▪ all ready vs already
▪ All ready means "completely ready".
▪ For example: "Are you all ready for the test?"
▪ Already is an adverb that means before the present time or earlier than
the time expected.
▪ For example: "I asked him to come to the cinema but he'd already seen
the film."
▪ Or
▪ "Are you buying Christmas cards already? It's only September!“
▪ altogether vs all together
▪ All together (adv) means "together in a single group."
▪ For example: The waiter asked if we were all together.
▪ Altogether (adv) means "completely" or "in total ".
▪ For example: She wrote less and less often, and eventually
she stopped altogether.
▪ To be in the altogether is an old-fashioned term for being
naked!
▪ any one vs anyone Any one means any single person or thing out of a
group of people or things.
▪ For example: I can recommend any one of the books on this site.
▪ Anyone means any person. It's always written as one word.
▪ For example: Did anyone see that UFO?
▪ apart vs a part
▪ Apart (adv) separated by distance or time.
▪ For example: I always feel so lonely when we're apart.
▪ A part (noun) a piece of something that forms the whole of
something.
▪ For example: They made me feel like I was a part of the
family.
▪ been vs gone
▪ been is the past participle of be
▪ gone is the past participle of go
▪ Been is used to describe completed visits. So if you have been to
England twice, you have travelled there and back twice. If you have
gone to England, you have not yet returned.
▪ Now you've been and gone and done it!
▪ borrow vs lend
▪ To lend:
▪ Meaning: to hand out usually for a certain length of time.
▪ Banks lend money.
▪ Libraries lend books.
▪ For example: "My mother lent me some money, and I must pay her back soon."
▪ To borrow:
▪ Meaning: to take with permission usually for a certain length of time.
▪ You can borrow money from a bank to buy a house or a car.
▪ You can borrow books for up to 4 weeks from libraries in England.
▪ For example: "I borrowed some money off my mother, and I must pay her back soon."
▪ For a happy life - Never a borrower nor a lender be.
▪ complement (v) vs compliment (n)

▪ Complement is a verb, which means to make something seem better or

more attractive when combined.
▪ For example: "The colours blue and green complement each other
perfectly."
▪ Compliment is a noun, which means a remark that expresses approval,
admiration or respect.
▪ For example: "It was the nicest compliment anyone had ever paid me."
▪ Tip! Having problems with your spelling? Try this trick:-
▪ If it complements something it completes it. (With an e.)
▪ I like compliments. (With an i.)
▪ council vs counsel
▪ Council is a group noun. It refers to a group of people elected or chosen to
make decisions or give advice on a particular subject, to represent a particular
group of people, or to run a particular organization.
▪ For example: "The local council has decided not to allocate any more funds for
the project."
▪ Counsel can be a verb, which means to give advice, especially on social or
personal problems.
▪ For example: "She counsels the long-term unemployed on how to get a job."
▪ Counsel can also be a noun, which means advice.
▪ For example: "I should have listened to my father's counsel, and saved some
money instead of spending it all."
▪ fewer vs less

▪ Use fewer for countable things, like people e.g. There were fewer people at the Show
this year.
▪ Use less for uncountable things, like flour e.g. Use less flour and your cake will rise.

▪ The same applies to number and amount:

▪ A number of people went to the Show.
▪ The amount of flour in the recipe made the cake too doughy.
▪ everyday vs every day

▪ Everyday means ordinary e.g. The everyday groceries, like

milk and bread, cost the most when you did it all up.
▪ Every day means every single day.
▪ loose vs lose

▪ Loose is an adjective. If something isn't fixed properly or it doesn't fit,

because it's too large, it's loose.
▪ Loose is an adjective. If something isn't fixed properly or it doesn't fit,
because it's too large, it's loose.
▪ For example: My headphones weren't working, because a wire was
loose.
▪ Lose is a verb that means to no longer possess something because you do
not know where it is, or because it has been taken away from you.
▪ For example: A lot of people will lose their job if there is a recession.
▪ Quite vs quiet
▪ She was quite surprised when her students did not do his
homework.
▪ Be quiet and do your work!

▪ Stationary vs stationery
▪ The stationary train wasn’t going anywhere!
▪ Stationery costs a fortune.