Computer Organization and

Architecture

Julius Bancud
 Architecture & Organization
• Computer architecture refers to those attributes of a
system visible to a programmer or, put another way,
those attributes that have a direct impact on the
logical execution of a program. A term that is often
used interchangeably with computer architecture is
instruction set architecture (ISA).
• The ISA defines instruction formats, instruction
opcodes, registers, instruction and data memory; the
effect of executed instructions on the registers and
memory; and an algorithm for controling instruction
execution.
 Architecture & Organization
• Computer organization refers to the operational units
and their interconnections that realize the architectural
specifications.
• Examples of architectural attributes include the instruction
set, the number of bits used to represent various data types
(e.g., numbers, characters), I/O mechanisms, and
techniques for addressing memory.
• Organizational attributes include those hardware details
transparent to the programmer, such as control signals;
interfaces between the computer and peripherals; and the
memory technology used.
 Architecture & Organization

• All Intel x86 family share the same basic

architecture
• The IBM System/370 family share the same basic
architecture

RESEARCH – AUG 11, 2021

 Structure & Function

• Structure is the way in which components relate to each

other
• Function is the operation of individual components as part
of the structure
In terms of description, we have two choices: starting at the
bottom and building up to a complete description, or
beginning with a top view and decomposing the system into
its subparts. Evidence from a number of fields suggests that
the top down approach is the clearest and most effective
 Function

• All computer functions are:

• Data processing
• Data storage
• Data movement
• Control
 Computer Functions

• Data processing: Data may take a wide variety of forms, and the range
of processing requirements is broad. However, we shall see that there
are only a few fundamental methods or types of data processing.
• Data storage: Even if the computer is processing data on the fly (i.e.,
data come in and get processed, and the results go out immediately),
the computer must temporarily store at least those pieces of data that
are being worked on at any given moment. Thus, there is at least a
short-term data storage function. Equally important, the computer
performs a long-term data storage function. Files of data are stored on
the computer for subsequent retrieval and update.
 Computer Functions
• Data movement: The computer’s operating environment
consists of devices that serve as either sources or
destinations of data. When data are received from or
delivered to a device that is directly connected to the
computer, the process is known as input– output (I/O), and
the device is referred to as a peripheral. When data are
moved over longer distances, to or from a remote device,
the process is known as data communications.
• Control: Within the computer, a control unit manages the
computer’s resources and orchestrates the performance of
its functional parts in response to instructions.
Functional View
 Operations: Data
movement

The computer can

function as a data
movement device,
simply transferring data
from one peripheral or
communications line to
another.
 Operations: Storage

It can also function as

a data storage device,
with data transferred
from the external
environment to
computer storage
(read) and vice versa
(write).
 Operation
Processing
from/to storage

The final two diagrams

show operations
involving data
processing, on data
either in storage (UP) or
en route between storage
and the external
environment (DOWN).
 Simple
Single-
Processor
Computer

Figure 1. The Computer: Top-Level Structure

 Structure - Top Level
Peripherals Computer

Central Main
Processing Memory
Unit

Computer
Systems
Interconnection

Input
Output
Communication
lines
 Structure - The CPU
CPU

Computer Arithmetic
Registers and
I/O Login Unit
System CPU
Bus
Internal CPU
Memory Interconnection

Control
Unit
 Structure - The Control Unit
Control Unit

CPU
Sequencing
ALU Login
Control
Internal
Unit
Bus
Control Unit
Registers Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory
 Four main structural components:

• Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of

the computer and performs its data processing functions;
often simply referred to as processor.
• Main memory: Stores data.
• I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external
environment.
• System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main memory, and I/O. A
common example of system interconnection is by means of a
system bus, consisting of a number of conducting wires to
which all the other components attach.
 Major structural components are as
follows:
• Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU and
hence the computer
• Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the
computer’s data processing functions
• Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU
• CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides
for communication among the control unit, ALU, and
registers
 Multicore Computer Structure
When these processors all reside on a single chip, the term multicore
computer is used, and each processing unit (consisting of a control
unit, ALU, registers, and perhaps cache) is called a core. To clarify the
terminology, this text will use the following definitions.
Central processing unit (CPU): That portion of a computer that
fetches and executes instructions. It consists of an ALU, a control unit,
and registers. In a system with a single processing unit, it is often
simply referred to as a processor.
 Core: An individual processing unit on a processor chip. A core may
be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system. Other
specialized processing units, such as one optimized for vector and
matrix operations, are also referred to as cores.
 Multicore Computer Structure

 Processor: A physical piece of silicon containing

one or more cores. The processor is the computer
component that interprets and executes
instructions. If a processor contains multiple
cores, it is referred to as a multicore processor.
 Multicore Computer Structure
• Figure 2 is a simplified view of the principal components of a typical
multicore computer. Most computers, including embedded computers in
smartphones and tablets, plus personal computers, laptops, and workstations,
are housed on a motherboard. Before describing this arrangement, we need to
define some terms.
• A printed circuit board (PCB) is a rigid, flat board that holds and interconnects
chips and other electronic components. The board is made of layers, typically
two to ten, that interconnect components via copper pathways that are etched
into the board.
• The main printed circuit board in a computer is called a system board or
motherboard, while smaller ones that plug into the slots in the main board are
called expansion boards.
 Figure 2.
Simplified
View of
Major
Elements of
a Multicore
Computer
 Multicore Computer Structure
• The most prominent elements on the motherboard are the chips. A
chip is a single piece of semiconducting material, typically silicon,
upon which electronic circuits and logic gates are fabricated. The
resulting product is referred to as an integrated circuit.
• The motherboard contains a slot or socket for the processor chip,
which typically contains multiple individual cores, in what is
known as a multicore processor. There are also slots for memory
chips, I/O controller chips, and other key computer components.
For desktop computers, expansion slots enable the inclusion of
more components on expansion boards. Thus, a modern
motherboard connects only a few individual chip components,
with each chip containing from a few thousand up to hundreds of
millions of transistors.
 Multicore Computer Structure
• Figure 2 shows a processor chip that contains eight
cores and an L3 cache. Not shown is the logic required
to control operations between the cores and the cache
and between the cores and the external circuitry on the
motherboard. The figure indicates that the L3 cache
occupies two distinct portions of the chip surface.
However, typically, all cores have access to the entire
L3 cache via the aforementioned control circuits. The
processor chip shown in Figure 2 does not represent any
specific product but provides a general idea of how such
chips are laid out.
 Multicore Computer Structure

• In general terms, the functional elements of a core are:

 Instruction logic: This includes the tasks involved in
fetching instructions and decoding each instruction to
determine the instruction operation and the memory
locations of any operands.
 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the
operation specified by an instruction.
 Load/store logic: Manages the transfer of data to and
from main memory via cache.
 Multicore Computer Structure
• The core also contains an L1 cache, split between an instruction cache (I-
cache) that is used for the transfer of instructions to and from main
memory, and an L1 data cache, for the transfer of operands and results.
• Typically, today’s processor chips also include an L2 cache as part of the
core. In many cases, this cache is also split between instruction and data
caches, although a combined, single L2 cache is also used. Keep in mind
that this representation of the layout of the core is only intended to give a
general idea of internal core structure.
• In a given product, the functional elements may not be laid out as the
three distinct elements shown in Figure 2, especially if some or all of
these functions are implemented as part of a microprogrammed control
unit.
 Multicore Computer Structure
Examples.
It will be instructive to look at some real- world examples that
illustrate the hierarchical structure of computers. Figure 3 is a
photograph of the motherboard for a computer built around two
Intel Quad- Core Xeon processor chips. Here, we mention the
most important, in addition to the processor sockets:
PCI-Express slots for a high-end display adapter and for
additional peripherals
 Ethernet controller and Ethernet ports for network
connections.
 USB sockets for peripheral devices.
Figure 3 Motherboard with Two Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors
 Multicore Computer Structure

 Serial ATA (SATA) sockets for connection to disk

memory.
 Interfaces for DDR (double data rate) main memory
chips.
 Intel 3420 chipset is an I/O controller for direct memory
access operations between peripheral devices and main
memory.
 Multicore Computer Structure
• Figure 4 is a photograph of the processor chip for the IBM zEnterprise
EC12 mainframe computer.
• This chip has 2.75 billion transistors. The superimposed labels indicate
how the silicon real estate of the chip is allocated.
• We see that this chip has six cores, or processors.
• In addition, there are two large areas labeled L3 cache, which are
shared by all six processors. The L3 control logic controls traffic
between the L3 cache and the cores and between the L3 cache and the
external environment.
• Additionally, there is storage control (SC) logic between the cores and
the L3 cache. The memory controller (MC) function controls access to
memory external to the chip. The GX I/O bus controls the interface to
the channel adapters accessing the I/O.
Figure 4 zEnterprise EC12 Processor Unit (PU) chip diagram
 Multicore Computer Structure

• Going down one level deeper, we examine the internal

structure of a single core, as shown in the photograph of
Figure 1.5. Keep in mind that this is a portion of the silicon
surface area making up a single- processor chip. The main
sub- areas within this core area are the following:
 ISU (instruction sequence unit): Determines the sequence in
which instructions are executed in what is referred to as a
superscalar architecture.
 IFU (instruction fetch unit): Logic for fetching instructions.
Figure 1.5 zEnterprise EC12 Core layout
 Multicore Computer Structure
 IDU (instruction decode unit): The IDU is fed from the IFU buffers and is
responsible for the parsing and decoding of all z/Architecture operation codes.
 LSU (load-store unit): The LSU contains the 96-kB L1 data cache,1 and
manages data traffic between the L2 data cache and the functional execution
units. It is responsible for handling all types of operand accesses of all lengths,
modes, and formats as defined in the z/Architecture.
 XU (translation unit): This unit translates logical addresses from instructions
into physical addresses in main memory. The XU also contains a translation
lookaside buffer (TLB) used to speed up memory access.
 FXU (fixed-point unit): The FXU executes fixed-point arithmetic operations.
 Multicore Computer Structure
 BFU (binary floating-point unit): The BFU handles all binary and
hexadecimal floating-point operations, as well as fixed-point
multiplication operations.
 DFU (decimal floating- point unit): The DFU handles both fixed- point
and floating-point operations on numbers that are stored as decimal
digits.
 RU (recovery unit): The RU keeps a copy of the complete state of the
system that includes all registers, collects hardware fault signals, and
manages the hardware recovery actions.
 COP (dedicated co-processor):
 The COP is responsible for data compression and encryption functions
for each core.
 Multicore Computer Structure
 I- cache: This is a 64-kB L1 instruction cache,
allowing the IFU to prefetch instructions before
they are needed.
 L2 control: This is the control logic that manages
the traffic through the two L2 caches.
 Data-L2: A 1-MB L2 data cache for all memory
traffic other than instructions.
 Instr-L2: A 1-MB L2 instruction cache