Material Science and Technology Assignment

Magnetic domain, magnetostriction,

Paramagnetism, diamagnetism,
ferromagnetism
Magnetic Domain
 A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material in which the
magnetization is in a uniform direction. This means that the
individual magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned with one another and
they point in the same direction.
 When cooled below a temperature called the Curie temperature, the
magnetization of a piece of ferromagnetic material spontaneously divides into
many small regions called magnetic domains.
 The magnetization within each domain points in a uniform direction, but the
magnetization of different domains may point in different directions.
 Magnetic domain theory was developed by French physicist Pierre-Ernest Weiss who, in 1906,
suggested existence of magnetic domains in ferromagnets
 Magnetic domain structure is responsible for the magnetic behavior
of ferromagnetic. This includes the formation of permanent magnets and the
attraction of ferromagnetic materials to a magnetic field.
 The regions separating magnetic domains are called domain walls, where the
magnetization rotates coherently from the direction in one domain to that in
the next domain.
 The study of magnetic domains is called micromagnetics.
 Magnetic domains form in materials which have magnetic ordering; that is,
their dipoles spontaneously align due to the exchange interaction. These are
the ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials.
  Paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, in which the dipoles align in
response to an external field but do not spontaneously align, do not have
magnetic domains.
Domain Structure
 The reason a piece of magnetic material such as iron spontaneously
divides into separate domains, rather than exist in a state with
magnetization in the same direction throughout the material, is to
minimize its internal energy. A large region of ferromagnetic material
with a constant magnetization throughout will create a large magnetic
field extending into the space outside itself.
 This requires a lot of magnetostatic energy stored in the field. To
reduce this energy, the sample can split into two domains, with the
magnetization in opposite directions in each domain.
 To reduce the field energy further, each of these domains can split also,
resulting in smaller parallel domains with magnetization in alternating
directions, with smaller amounts of field outside the material.
(How dividing a ferromagnetic material into magnetic domains reduces the magnetostatic
energy)
Size of domains
 A domain which is too big is unstable, and will divide into smaller
domains. But a small enough domain will be stable and will not split, and
this determines the size of the domains created in a material. This size
depends on the balance of several energies within the material.
 Each time a region of magnetization splits into two domains, it creates
a domain wall between the domains, where magnetic dipoles (molecules)
with magnetization pointing in different directions are adjacent.
 The exchange interaction which creates the magnetization is a force
which tends to align nearby dipoles so they point in the same direction.
 Forcing adjacent dipoles to point in different directions requires energy.
Therefore, a domain wall requires extra energy, called the domain wall
energy, which is proportional to the area of the wall.
Size of domains ( Continued)
 Thus the net amount that the energy is reduced when a domain splits is
equal to the difference between the magnetic field energy saved, and
the additional energy required to create the domain wall. The field
energy is proportional to the cube of the domain size, while the domain
wall energy is proportional to the square of the domain size.
 So as the domains get smaller, the net energy saved by splitting
decreases. The domains keep dividing into smaller domains until the
energy cost of creating an additional domain wall is just equal to the
field energy saved. Then the domains of this size are stable.
 In most materials the domains are microscopic in size, around 10−4 -
10−6 m.
MAGNETOSTRICTION
 Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials that causes them to change their
shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization. The variation of materials'
magnetization due to the applied magnetic field changes the magnetostrictive strain until
reaching its saturation value, λ. The effect was first identified in 1842 by James Joule when
observing a sample of iron.
 This effect causes energy loss due to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores. The
effect is also responsible for the low-pitched humming sound that can be heard coming from
transformers, where oscillating AC currents produce a changing magnetic field
PARAMAGNETISM

 Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby certain materials are weakly attracted by an

externally applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the
applied magnetic field.
 In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields and form
induced magnetic fields in the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field. 
 Paramagnetic materials include most chemical elements and some compounds; they have a
relative magnetic permeability slightly greater than 1 (i.e., a small positive magnetic susceptibility)
and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is
linear in the field strength and rather weak.
 Paramagnetism is due to the presence of unpaired electrons in the material, so all atoms with
incompletely filled atomic orbitals are paramagnetic.
 Due to their spin, unpaired electrons have a magnetic dipole moment and act like tiny magnets. An
external magnetic field causes the electrons' spins to align parallel to the field, causing a net
attraction.
 Paramagnetic materials include aluminium, oxygen, titanium, and iron oxide (FeO).
Curie’s Law
 For low levels of magnetization, the magnetization of paramagnets
follows what is known as Curie's law, at least approximately. This law
indicates that the susceptibility of paramagnetic materials is inversely
proportional to their temperature, i.e. that materials become more
magnetic at lower temperatures.
 The mathematical expression is:
M=xH=(C/T)*H
Here, M-Resulting magnetization, measured in amperes/meter
x- volume magnetic susceptibility(dimensionless)
  H-is the auxiliary magnetic field (A/m)
T-is absolute temperature, measured in kelvins (K)
C-is a material-specific Curie constant (K)
FERROMAGNETISM
 Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron)
form permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets.
 Ferromagnetism (along with the similar effect ferrimagnetism) is the strongest type and is
responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism in magnets encountered in everyday life.
 Substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with three other types of
magnetism, paramagnetism, diamagnetism, and antiferromagnetism, but the forces are usually
so weak that they can only be detected by sensitive instruments in a laboratory.
 Ferromagnetism is very important in industry and modern technology, and is the basis for many
electrical and electromechanical devices such as electromagnets, electric
motors, generators, transformers, and magnetic storage such as tape recorders, and hard disks,
and nondestructive testing of ferrous materials.
FERROMAGNETISM (continued)

 An everyday example of ferromagnetism is a refrigerator magnet used to hold

notes on a refrigerator door. The attraction between a magnet and
ferromagnetic material is "the quality of magnetism first apparent to the
ancient world, and to us today".
 Permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an
external magnetic field and remain magnetized after the external field is
removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are the materials that
are noticeably attracted to them. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic.
 The common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt and most of their alloys, and some
compounds of rare earth metals.
Curie Temperature
 As the temperature increases, thermal motion, or entropy, competes with
the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align. When the temperature
rises beyond a certain point, called the Curie temperature, there is a
second-order phase transition and the system can no longer maintain a
spontaneous magnetization, so its ability to be magnetized or attracted to
a magnet disappears, although it still responds paramagnetically to an
external field.
 Below that temperature, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking and
magnetic moments become aligned with their neighbors.
 The Curie temperature itself is a critical point, where the magnetic
susceptibility is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net
magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all length scales
DIAMAGNETISM
 Diamagnetic materials are repelled by a magnetic field; an applied magnetic field creates
an induced magnetic field in them in the opposite direction, causing a repulsive force.
 In contrast, paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials are attracted by a magnetic
field. Diamagnetism is a quantum mechanical effect that occurs in all materials; when it is the
only contribution to the magnetism, the material is called diamagnetic. In paramagnetic and
ferromagnetic substances the weak diamagnetic force is overcome by the attractive force
of magnetic dipoles in the material.
 The magnetic permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than μ 0, the permeability of vacuum.
In most materials diamagnetism is a weak effect which can only be detected by sensitive
laboratory instruments, but a superconductor acts as a strong diamagnet because it repels a
magnetic field entirely from its interior.
Effect of external field lines
Superconductors
 Superconductors may be considered perfect diamagnets ( Xv=-
1) , because they expel all magnetic fields (except in a thin
surface layer) due to the Meissner effect.
 The Meissner effect (or Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect) is the
expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its
transition to the superconducting state.
 The German physicists Walther Meissner and Robert
Ochsenfeld discovered this phenomenon in 1933 by measuring
the magnetic field distribution outside superconducting tin and
lead samples.
  The samples, in the presence of an applied magnetic field,
were cooled below their superconducting transition
temperature, whereupon the samples cancelled nearly all
interior magnetic fields
Difference between ferro, para and diamagnetic materials

PROPERTIES FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS DIAMAGNETIC

State They are solid. They can be solid, liquid or gas. They can be solid, liquid or gas.

Effect of Magnet Strongly attracted by a magnet. Weakly attracted by a magnet. Weakly repelled by a magnet.

Behavior under non-uniform field tend to move from low to high field region. tend to move from low to high field region. tend to move from high to low region.

Behavior under external field They preserve the magnetic properties after They do not preserve the magnetic They do not preserve the magnetic
the external field is removed. properties once the external field is properties once the external field is
removed. removed.
Difference between ferro, para and
diamagnetic materials
Effect of Temperature Above curie point, it With the rise of No effect.
becomes a paramagnetic. temperature, it becomes a
diamagnetic.

Permeability Very high Little greater than unity Little less than unity

Susceptibility Very high and positive Little greater than unity Little less than unity and
and positive negative

Examples Iron, Nickel, Cobalt Lithium, Tantalum, Copper, Silver, Gold

Magnesium
THANK YOU!!!!
PRESENTED BY:
 PRANAV KAUSHIK(102117039)
 ANANTHANARAYANAN POTTI(102117005)
 ADITYA RAJAGOPAL(102117001)