Radiation Heat

Transfer

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Radiation is an electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body as a result of its
temperature

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic

waves (or photons) as a result of the changes in the electronic
configurations of the atoms or molecules

Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by radiation does

not require the presence of an intervening medium

In fact, energy transfer by

radiation is fastest (at the
speed of light) and it suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum. This
is how the energy of the sun
reaches the earth!
In heat transfer studies we are interested in thermal radiation, which is the
form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature

Thermal radiation differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation such

as x-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, radio waves, and television waves
that are not related to temperature

All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation

Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and gases

emit, absorb, or transmit radiation to varying degrees
A part of radiation energy incident on the surface of a body is absorbed by the body,
another part is transmitted through the body, and the remaining part is reflected from
the surface of the body (see Fig.)

The fraction of the incident radiation that is absorbed is called absorptivity, α*. The
transmissivity, τ*, and reflectivity, ρ*, are similarly defined as the fractions transmitted
and reflected, respectively. When the absorptivity of a solid body is unity, the body is
called a black body. A body whose absorptivity is less than unity is known as a gray
body. By definition therefore,
Radiation is usually considered to be a surface phenomenon for solids that are
opaque to thermal radiation such as metals, wood, and rocks since the radiation
emitted by the interior regions of such material can never reach the surface, and the
radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed within a few microns from the
surface

The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from

a surface at an absolute temperature Ts (K) is given by
the Stefan–Boltzmann law as

where σ = 5.67x10-8 W/m2·K4 is the Stefan–Boltzmann

constant

The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate is called a blackbody,
and the radiation emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation (Fig.).
The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than
the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same
temperature, and is expressed as

where ε is the emissivity of the surface

The property emissivity, whose value is in the range

0 ≤ ε ≤ 1, is a measure of how closely a surface
approximates a blackbody for which ε = 1
Another important radiation property of a surface is its absorptivity α , which is the
fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface that is absorbed by the surface

Like emissivity, its value is in the range 0 ≤ α ≤ 1

A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it. That is, a blackbody is a
perfect absorber (α = 1) as it is a perfect emitter

In general, both ε and α of a surface depend on the temperature and the

wavelength of the radiation. Kirchhoff’s law of radiation states that the emissivity and
the absorptivity of a surface at a given temperature and wavelength are equal

The rate at which a surface absorbs radiation is determined:

For opaque (nontransparent) surfaces, the

portion of incident radiation not absorbed
by the surface is reflected back
The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the surface and the radiation
absorbed is the net radiation heat transfer

If the rate of radiation absorption is greater than the rate of radiation emission,
the surface is said to be gaining energy by radiation

Otherwise,
the surface is said to be losing energy by radiation

In general, the determination of the net rate of heat transfer by radiation between two
surfaces is a complicated matter since it depends on the properties of the surfaces,
their orientation relative to each other, and the interaction of the medium between the
surfaces with radiation
When a surface of emissivity ε and surface area As at an absolute temperature Ts
is completely enclosed by a much larger (or black) surface at absolute temperature
Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does not intervene with radiation, the net
rate of radiation heat transfer between these two surfaces is given by (Fig.)

In this special case, the emissivity and the

surface area of the surrounding surface do not
have any effect on the net radiation heat
transfer
Radiation heat transfer to or from a surface surrounded by a gas such as air
occurs parallel to conduction (or convection, if there is bulk gas motion)
between the surface and the gas. Thus the total heat transfer is determined
by adding the contributions of both heat transfer mechanisms.

For simplicity and convenience, this is often done by defining a combined

heat transfer coefficient hcombined that includes the effects of both convection
and radiation

The total heat transfer rate to or from a surface by convection and radiation
is expressed as
The net radiation heat transfer rate between two black bodies, Q̇12 (W), is given by

F12, F21: shape factor or geometric factor

The shape factors, F12 and F21 for D/L ∞,

The net radiation heat transfer rate between two very large black
flat plates placed in parallel is given by
Exercise-1

Solution-1
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Gray Flat Plates with No Medium BetweenThem

where ε1 is the emissivity of plate 1 and ε2 is that of plate 2 (see Fig.)

Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Infinite Parallel Planes

When the surface areas, A1 and A2, are very large and A1 = A2, the shape factor is
unity (F12 = 1). Under this condition,
Exercise-2

Solution-2
Exercise-3
Solution-3

Since ε1 = ε2 = ε3

It should be noted that the heat flux is one-half of that derived in the previous exercise. That is,
inserting a plate between two heated plates can shield radiation heat transfer. When the number
of shields is n, the following shield effect can be obtained:
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Concentric Long Coaxial Cylinders

The configuration considered is shown in Fig. The heat transferred by radiation is

given by

when A2 is much larger than

A1, Eq. becomes
Radiation Heat Transfer Between Two Concentric Spherical Surfaces

Consider the configuration in Fig., Equation for Long Coaxial Cylinders is still valid in
this case; thus,
Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms

There are three mechanisms of heat transfer, but not all three can exist simultaneously
in a medium. For example, heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but by
conduction and radiation in semitransparent solids. Thus,
a solid may involve conduction and radiation but not convection

However,
a solid may involve heat transfer by convection and/or radiation on its surfaces
exposed to a fluid or other surfaces. For example, the outer surfaces of a cold piece of
rock will warm up in a warmer environment as a result of heat gain by convection (from
the air) and radiation (from the sun or the warmer surrounding surfaces). But the inner
parts of the rock will warm up as this heat is transferred to the inner region of the rock
by conduction
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in a
still fluid (no bulk fluid motion) and by convection and radiation
in a flowing fluid

In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is

either by conduction or convection, depending on the presence
of any bulk fluid motion

Convection can be viewed as combined conduction and fluid

motion, and conduction in a fluid can be viewed as a special
case of convection in the absence of any fluid motion (Fig.)
Thus,
when we deal with heat transfer through a fluid, we have either conduction or
convection, but not both

Also,
gases are practically transparent to radiation, except that some gases are known to
absorb radiation strongly at certain wavelengths. Ozone, for example, strongly
absorbs ultraviolet radiation. But in most cases, a gas between two solid surfaces
does not interfere with radiation and acts effectively as a vacuum

Liquids, on the other hand, are usually strong absorbers of radiation.

Finally, heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation only since conduction or

convection requires the presence of a material medium.
Relevant Dimensionless Parameters in Heat Transfer

- Grashof Number
- Nusselt Number
- Peclet Number
- Prandtl Number
- Rayleigh Number
 Hydrodynamic
Boundary Layer
and
Thermal
Boundary Layer
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According to Holman,
just as the hydrodynamic boundary layer is defined as that region of the flow where
viscous forces are felt, a thermal boundary layer may be defined as that region where
temperature gradients are present in the flow. These temperature gradients would
result from a heat-exchange process between the fluid and the wall

Description of the hydrodynamic boundary layer and thermal boundary layer will be
given with reference to Stokes’ first problem, which deals with flow around a wide, flat
plate starting suddenly from rest at a constant nonzero velocity V

The fluid adjacent to the plate begins to move with it with time. This layer is called a
hydrodynamic boundary layer. The velocity of fluid decreases in the direction normal
to the plate from V on the surface of the plate to zero outside the layer. Its thickness,
δh, increases with time, t, in the following manner:

where vf (m2/s) is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid

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The growth of the hydrodynamic boundary layer therefore is closely associated with
the kinematic viscosity, vf. In other words, the kinematic viscosity is a measure of the
degree of momentum exchange in the fluid flow

In a similar manner, the thickness of a thermal boundary layer on a flat plate is

governed by the thermal diffusivity of fluid, αf (m2/s); thus,

where kf is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, ρf is the density of the fluid, and cp
is the specific heat at constant pressure. The unit of thermal diffusivity is equal to
that of kinematic viscosity

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