PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

Chapter 13, High Speed Flight

Speed of Sound

The speed of propagation of small pressure waves depends upon the temperature of the air
ONLY.

a = speed of sound

R = the gas constant

𝑎=
 
√𝛾 𝑅 𝑇 γ = a constant (1,4 for air)

T = absolute temperature ( °K )

The speed sound is proportional only to the square root of the absolute
temperature.

 𝑎 ∾ √𝑇
Mach Number

As the speed of an aircraft increases, there is a decrease in the distance between the aircraft and
the influence of the advancing pressure waves.

Mach number is a measure of compressibility.

 
M = (where V=TAS)
Effect on Mach Number of Climbing at a Constant IAS

The speed of sound will decrease as altitude is increased. (The

lower the temperature, the lower the speed of sound)

If altitude is increased at a constant IAS, the TAS increases.

Thus the Mach number will increase if altitude is increased at a constant IAS.
Effect on Mach Number of Climbing at a Constant IAS

As the climb continues an altitude will be reached at which the flight crew must stop
flying at a constant IAS and fly at a constant Mach number, to avoid accidentally
exceeding MMO. The altitude at which this changeover takes place will depend on the
outside air temperature.
The lower the outside air temperature, the lower the changeover altitude.
Variation of TAS with Altitude at a Constant Mach Number

TAS
M= TAS = M x a
a
With constant Mach number:

as altitude decreases the temperature will rise, LSS and TAS will increase.

As altitude increases the temperature will drop, LSS and TAS will decrease.

When climbing at a constant TAS, Mach number will be increasing, up to the tropopause, and then
remains constant.
Influence of Temperature on Mach Number at a Constant Flight
Level and IAS

IAS
M=
constant
√ P
Pₒ

At a constant pressure altitude, the Mach number is independent of temperature for a constant
IAS.

This is because the speed of sound and the TAS, for a given IAS, both change as √T.
Subdivisions of Aerodynamic Flow
Subdivisions of Aerodynamic Flow

MFS (Free Stream Mach number) Uneffected air flow….. Displayed on Mach meter

ML (Local Mach number) The boundary layer flow speed and it is subdivided as
follows.

Subsonic Less than Mach 1,0 (< M 1,0)

Sonic Exactly Mach 1,0 (M 1,0)

Supersonic Greater than Mach 1,0 (> M 1,0)

Propagation of Pressure Waves

The greater the Mach number of the object, the more acute the upwash angle and the fewer the number of air
particles that can move out of the path of the object. Air will begin to build up in front of the object and the
density of the air will increase.
Propagation of Pressure Waves
At one point the free air stream particles are completely undisturbed, having received no advance warning of the
approach of a fast moving object, and then are suddenly made to undergo drastic changes in velocity, pressure,
temperature and density. Because of the sudden nature of these changes, the boundary line between the
undisturbed air and the region of compressed air is called a ‘shock wave’
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Change in:

Velocity

Pressure

Temperature

Density

At supersonic speeds there is no upwash or downwash.

Normal Shock Waves

Normal = perpendicular to the upstream flow

Whenever supersonic airflow is slowed to subsonic speed without a change in direction, a

‘normal’ shock wave will form as a boundary between the supersonic and subsonic region.
Critical Mach Number (MCRIT)

The critical Mach number will decrease with increasing thickness/chord radio or AoA.

Critical Mach numer (MCRIT)is the highest speed at which no parts of the aircraft are
supersonic.
Critical Mach Number (MCRIT)

Accelerating beyond MCRIT

At speeds just above the critical Mach number there will be a small region of supersonic airflow on the upper surface,
terminated by a shock wave.

A shock wave forms at the rear of an area of supersonic flow.

At MCRIT there is no shock wave because there is no supersonic flow.

Pressure Distribution at Transonic Mach Numbers

During acceleration to supersonic flight, the pressure distribution is irregular.

Properties of a Normal Shock Wave

A normal shock wave will experience the following changes:

Airstream is slowed to subsonic

Static pressure increases

Temperature increases

Density increases

The energy of the airstream (total pressure) is greatly reduced

Minimum energy loss through a normal shock wave will ocur when the Mach number of the airflow
in front of the shock wave is small but supersonic.
Oblique Shock Waves

Shock Wave Summary:

A normal shock wave marks the change from supersonic to subsonic flow.

Even the downstream airflow behind the oblique shock wave is supersonic, the component of
velocity normal to the the shock wave will always be subsonic.
Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Effect of Shock Waves on Lift:

At high subsonic speeds streamlines do not begin to deflect until closer to the leading
edge, causing greater acceleration and pressure drop around the leading edge.
This phenomena causes the stall speed to increase at high altitudes.
Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Effect of Shock Waves on Lift:

At speeds above MCRIT a shock wave wil have formed. This cause boundary layer seperation
aft of the shock wave, causing loss lift (shock stall).
Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Effect of Shock Waves on Lift Curve Slope and CLMAX:

Because of earlier separation resulting from the formation of the shock wave,
CLMAX and the stalling angle will be reduced.
Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Effect of Shock Waves on Drag:

As speed increases above MCRIT shock waves begin to form and drag increases.
The additional drag is called wave drag and is due to energy drag and boundary layer separation.
The Drag Divergence Mach Number is usually close to, and always greater than, the Critical Mach
Number.

The Mach number at which the aerodynamic drag begins to increase rapidly is called THE DRAG
DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER.
 Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Energy Drag:

Energy has to be used to provide the temperature rise across the shock wave and this energy loss is
drag on the aircraft.

Boundary Layer Separation:

The ‘hump’ in the curve from M 0.89 to M 1.2 is caused by:

• The drag directly associated with the trailing edge shock

waves (energy loss).
• Separation of the boundary layer.
• The formation of the bow shock wave above M 1.0.
Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Effect of Shock Waves on the CL / CD Drag Polar Curve:

The point at which the tangent from the origin touches the curve corresponds
to the maximum CL / CD or maximum L / D. In the transonic region, the L/D ratio is reduced.
 Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Effect of Shock Waves on the Centre of Pressure:

As the aircraft acelerates to supersonic speed, the overall movement

of the CP is aft to the 50% chord position.

The wing root usually has a thicker section than the wing tip so will
have a lower MCRIT and shock induced separation will occur at the
root frst.
The CP will move towards the tip, and if the wing is swept, this CP
movement will also be rearward.
Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Effect of Shock Waves on CP Movement:

-- Rearward CP movement with increasing Mach number in the transonic region produces a nose-
down pitching moment. This is known as Mach Tuck or Tuck Under.

-- Also Effective AoA increases at the tailplane (because of reduced downwash),

giving an increased nose-down moment.
Effects of Shock Wave Formation

Effect of Shock Waves on Flying Controls:

-- If there is a shock wave ahead of the control surface, movement of the control cannot affect any
part of the airfoil ahead of the shock wave, and this will also reduce control effectiveness. (because
of seperation)

-- This can be overcome by, all moving tailplane, roll control spoilers, or vortex generators.
Buffet

The aircraft must be operated in such a manner that a (safety) margin exists before aerodynamic
buffet will occur.

Low speed stall combined with high speed buffet, the factors to be considered are:

Load factor (bank angle)

Mach number
AoA
Pressure altitude
Weight
CG position
Factors Which Affect the Buffet Boundaries
Stall Speed

TAS
M=
LSS

If altitude is increased at a constant EAS, Mach number will increase.

Factors Which Affect the Buffet Boundaries
Stall Speed

CLMAX decreases with increasing altitude, the 1g stall speed will increase

Aerodynamic Ceiling

As altitude increases, stall speed is intially constant then increases.

 Factors Which Affect the Buffet Boundaries
An altitude is eventually reached when there is only one speed at which the aircraf can fly, since
increasing or decreasing speed or banking the aircraf will result in a stall.
This altitude is called the ‘Aerodynamic Ceiling’. This state of difficulty is also called ‘coffin
corner’.

Load Factor
Increase in load factor increases the stall speed.
Because load factor increases the stall speed, curves can
be drawn for all values of load factor up to the maximum
permissible ‘g’, and together they
constitute the set of stalling boundaries for the given aircraft.

Mach Number
For a given aircraf there is a Mach number which cannot be exceeded because of the onset of shock
stall.
Figure shows the EAS corresponding to this Mach number falling as altitude increases, so the
range of operating speeds is reduced at both ends.
Factors Which Affect the Buffet Boundaries
Angle of Attack

As the EAS associated with a given Mach number falls with increased altitude, so the required CL,
and hence angle of attack, increases.
This results in a reduction in the Mach number at which buffeting occurs, which results in a
further reduction in the permissible airspeed.
Factors Which Affect the Buffet Boundaries
Angle of Attack

Also, an increase in load factor (bank angle) requires an increase in lift at a given EAS, hence an
increase in angle of attack and a further reduction in limiting Mach number.

Thus the greater the load factor (bank angle or gust), the more severe the limitation due to
buffeting.

There is a set of buffet boundaries for various load factors (bank angles), just as there is a set of stall
boundaries.
Factors Which Affect the Buffet Boundaries
Pressure Altitude

Above a certain altitude the buffet boundary may intersect the stall boundary at a value of ‘g’ lower
than the structural limit.

This ‘point’ is another representation of “coffin corner”.

The Buffet Margin

Weight
An increase in weight results in an increase in stall speed, and the stall boundary is moved to the
right.
It also results in an increase in angle of attack at any given speed, so that the Mach number at which
buffeting occurs is reduced, and the buffet boundary is moved to the left.

CG Position
Forward movement of the CG increases stall speed so the buffet boundaries will be affected in a
similar way to that due to weight increase.

The Buffet Margin

It has been stated that an altitude can eventually be reached where there is only one speed at which
the aircraf can fly. In the case of a 1g manoeuvre, this altitude is called the ‘Aerodynamic Ceiling’.
Operating an aircraf at its aerodynamic ceiling would leave no safety margin.
Use of the Buffet Onset Chart
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
Thin Wing Section

Disadvantages of low T/C ratio wing section:

Less lift…….higher T/O and Ldg speeds……increased distance

Wider main spars for the same strength and stiffness….structural weight!

Limited space (fuel tanks, high lift devices, main landing gears)
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
Sweepback

The component of velocity perpendicular to the leading edge is less than the free stream velocity
and it is this velocity component which determines the magnitude of the pressure distribution.

Sweeping the wing back increases the effective aerodynamic chord for the same dimensional
thickness.
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
Sweepback

Another advantage of sweepback is the reduced lif curve slope.

Less sensitive to changes in AoA.
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
Disadvantages of Sweep

Reduced CLMAX

Higher stall speed…..increased T/O and Ldg distances

High AoA....tail-strike at Ldg….limited visibility at T/O and Ldg

Tendency to tip stall and pitch-up at stall…..deep stall possibility

Reduced effectiveness of trailing edge control surfaces because their hinge line is swept.
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
Vortex Generators

Increasing the kinetic energy of the boundary layer will reduce flow separation. Simple devices
called vortex generators are used to re-energize the boundary layer.
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
Area Rule

Interference drag at transonic speeds may be minimized by ensuring that the cross-sectional area
distirbution along the aircraft’s longitudinal axis follows a certain smooth pattern.
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
Mach Trim
To maintain the required stick force gradient at high Mach numbers,a Mach trim system must be
fitted. It may;
Deflect the elevator up.
Decrease the incidence of the variable incidence trimming tailplane.
Move the CG rearwards by transferring fuel

A Mach trim system will adjust longitudinal trim and operates only at high Mach numbers.
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
Supercritical Aerofoil
Increased efficiency when operating in transonic speed range.

A blunt nose.
Large thickness.
‘S’ shaped camber line.
A relatively flat upper surface (less speed on upper wing but delayed shock waves)
Thick trailing edge.
Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
The Advantages of a Supercritical Aerofoil
Less sweep angle needed…..delayed shock waves.

Increased strenght and stiffness….higher aspect ratio.

More space for fuel tanks
To increase the performance:

Increased payload

Increased Cruising Speed

Delaying or Reducing the Effects of Compressibility
The Disadvantages of a Supercritical Aerofoil
Negative camber in front section…..reduced CLMAX….need for high lift augmentation

Positive camber at trailing edge….large negative (nose-down) pitching moment

Balanced by tailplane….more trim drag

Shock induced buffet may cause severe oscillations

Aerodynamic Heating

Surface temperature rise with Mach number.

For speeds above Mach 2.0, titanium or “stainless steel” must be used.
Mach Angle

If the TAS of the aircraf is greater than the local speed of sound, the source of pressure waves
is moving faster than the disturbance it creates.
Mach Cone

In three dimensions, the disturbances propagating from a moving point source expand outward
as spheres, not circles. If the speed of the source (V) is greater than the local speed of sound
(a), these spheres are enclosed within a Mach cone, whose semi vertical angle is μ.
Area (Zone) of Influence

When travelling at supersonic speeds the Mach cone represents the limit of travel of the
pressure disturbances created by an aircraft: anything forward of the Mach cone cannot be
influenced by the disturbances.
Bow Wave

The shock wave ahead of the leading edge is called a bow wave and is normal only in the
vicinity of the leading edge.
Further away from the leading edge (“above“ and ”below”) it becomes oblique.

The trailing edge shock waves are no longer normal because the free stream mach
number is greater than 1.0; they are also now oblique.
 Expension Waves
With subsonic airflow the adverse pressure gradient would be so steep
that the airflow would instantly separate at the “corner”.

A supersonic airflow can follow a convex corner because it expands

upon reaching the corner.
The velocity INCREASES and the other parameters, pressure, density
and temperature DECREASE.
Supersonic airflow behaviour through an expansion wave is
exactly opposite to that through a shock wave.

Afer passing through the bow shock wave, the compressed supersonic flow
is free to expand and follow the surface contour.
As there are no sudden changes to the airflow, the expansion waves are NOT
shock waves.
Expension Waves

The airflow is accelerated; the velocity and Mach number behind the expansion wave are greater.

The flow direction is changed to follow the surface.

The static pressure of the airflow behind the expansion wave is decreased.

The density of the airflow behind the expansion wave is decreased.

Since the flow change is gradual there is no ‘shock’ and no loss of energy in the airflow. An
expansion wave does not dissipate airflow energy.
Methods of Improving Control at Transonic Speeds

All moving (slab) tailplane

Roll conrol spoilers give better control in the transonic speed region
Supersonic Waves