PRESENTATION 3: HANDOUT 3

MATHEMATICAL PROBLEM
SOLVING

PRESENTED BY:
TUN FIRDAUS
HAYATI
ATHIRAH
SYAZWANI
Mathematical Problem
Solving

FIRDAUS
Mathematical Problem
Solving
1. Mathematics teaching and learning primary
goal is to develop the ability to solve wide
variety of complex mathematics problem.
2. To many mathematically literate people
says- mathematics is synonymous with
problem solving.
 Cont.
3. When two people talk about mathematics
problem solving they may not be talking about
something.
4. Reitman defined a problem as when you have
been given the description of something but do
not yet have anything that satisfied that
description.
5. Henderson and Pingry-blocking of that goal for
individual.
Learning to Solve Problem is the
Principal Reason for Studying
Mathematics
NATIONAL COUNCIL OF SUPERVISORS OF MATHEMATICS
In this Chapter:
We want to review and discuss

1. Research on how students in secondary

schools can develop the ability to solve a
wide variety of complex.
2. Address on how in instruction can best
develop this ability.
Question?

1. Should instruction emphasize the particular

problem solving techniques on strategies
unique to each task?
2. Will problem solving be enhanced by
providing instruction that demonstrated on
develops problem solving techniques or
strategies useful in many tasks?
Research on Problem Solving

1. Educational research conducted within

variety of constraints:
 Isolation of variable.
 Availability of subjects.
 Limitation of research procedures.
 Availability of resources.
 Balancing of priorities.
 Cont.
2. Methodologies
 Clinical approach
 Mathematical tasks situation are devised
 Talk aloud while working or interviewed and
asked to reflect on their experience and
especially their thinking process.

3. Basic for most mathematics problem solving

research for secondary school students in past
31 years was Polya-field at cognitive psychology.
Framework

1. According to Polya’s problem solving stages

2. To Polya problem solving was major theme

of doing mathematic and teaching studentto
think
Cont.
3. This below is linear framework of U.S.
mathematic textbook for problem solving
stage.

OR
Cont.
4. Linear nature of that model do not promote
the spirit of Poly’s stage and his goal of
teaching student to think. Why?
 They depicts problem solving as linear process.
 They present problem solving as series of step.
 They imply that solving Mathematics problem is
a procedure to be memorized , practiced and
habituated.
 They lead to an emphasis on answer getting.
Cont.
5. Another aspect of problem solving is problem
posing or problem formulation.
6. Not much research on that.
7. Even Polya did not talk specifically about
problem posing, but much of spirit and format
of problem posing is included in his illustration
of looking back.
8. Framework is needed that emphasized the
dynamic and cyclic nature of genuine problem
solving.
PROBLEM SOLVING AS A
PROCESS

Hayati
 1.) Domain Specific
Knowledge
 One must develop a base of mathematics knowledge in
order to become a good problem solver in mathematics.
 Kantowski: those students with a good knowledge base
were most able to use the heuristics (information or
strategies that we can adopt to solve unfamiliar problems) in
geometry instruction.
 Schoenfeid and Herrmann: novices attended to surface
features of problems whereas experts categorized
problems on the basis of the fundamental principles
involved.
 Silver: successful problem solvers were more likely to
categorize math problems on the basis of their underlying
similarities in mathematical structure.
Example: “convert all expressions of
trigonometric identities to functions
of sine and cosine and do algebraic
simplification.”

Question…

∫ csc x . Sin x. coc x dx

Solution…
∫ csc x . sin x . cos x dx
= ∫ 1/sin x . sin x . cos x dx
= ∫ cos x dx
= sin x + C
Examples of Basic
Mathematics Knowledge

Basic Functions of Trigonometry:-

 Cosec x = 1/sin x
 Tan x = sin x/cos x

Basic Integration Formula:-

 ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
 ∫ sin x dx= - cos x + C
 ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + C
2.) Algorithms
 Is a procedure, applicable to a particular type
of exercise, which, if followed correctly, is
guaranteed to give the answer to the
exercise.
 Problem solving is the process of creating an
algorithm and generalizing it to a specific
set of applications.
Example: Find the minimum or
maximum point of quadratic
equations;

Question….

f(x) = 3x2 + 6x + 1
 Solution…by using Completing the
Square method
f(x)= 3x2 + 6x + 1
= 3[x2 + 2x + 1/3]
= 3[x2 + 2x + (2/2)2 – (2/2)2 + 1/3]
= 3[x2 + 2x + (1)2 – (1)2 + 1/3]
= 3[(x + 1)2 – 1 + 1/3]
= 3[(x + 1)2 – 2/3]
= 3(x + 1)2 – 2

x+1=0 y = -2
x = -1

Therefore, the value for minimum quadratic equation is (-1,-2)

3.) Heuristics
 Are kinds of information, available to students in
making decisions during problem solving, that are
aids to the generation of a solution, plausible in
nature rather than prescriptive, seldom providing
infallible guidance, and variable in results.
 Synonyms terms with strategies and techniques.
 Examples; “simplify an algebraic expression by
removing parentheses”, “make a table”, “restate the
problem in your own words”, and “draw a figure to
suggest the line of argument for a proof”.
 Example of the Question
 Following are the numbers of passengers those
was had transited at KTM Station on three days;
Friday until Sunday for two months. Find the
value of median by using boundary 460-464.

465 466 477 471 480 460 478 471 473

473 463 476 470 472 471 479 474 475
469 473 474 472 483 479
Solution….
No. of passenger Frequency Cumulative Upper boundary
frequency
460 – 464 2 2 464.5
465 – 469 3 5 469.5
470 – 474 11 16 474.5
475 – 479 6 22 479.5
480 – 484 2 24 484.5
 (12)

(472.5)

Therefore, the value of mean of the passengers is

472.5 ≈ 473 person
 Examples of Heuristics….

 Guess-and-check  -> Useful for solving simple problems and

together with as systematic listings, this strategy helps to
narrow down to the correct guess in the shortest time
possible.
 Make a list -> Commonly used with 'Look for patterns'
strategy as it accounts for all possibilities systematically. It
organises, presents or generates information in a systematic
manner.
  Look for patterns -> As it involves active search from a
sequence of figures or numbers, information can be
expressed/viewed in an organised manner.
 Examples of Heuristics….
 Draw a model -> Suits pupils who need to see to
understand and it translates words or information into
pictorial representations.
  Work backwards -> Useful when the final result has already
been given.
 Simplify the problem -> Separates the problem into sub-
problems to be solved individually or in sequence.
  Before-after concept -> Compare information to find the
unknown as it lists information given before and after the
action.
(Extracted from 'Assessment Guide to Primary Mathematics'
by CPDD, MOE)
 Example of the Question
1.) Marta wants to tie a ribbon around the sides of a
hexagonal box and then tie a bow. Each of side of the
box is 4 inches long. She needs 14 inches for the bow.
Is one yard of ribbon enough? Explain. Then state
exactly how long the ribbon must be.
TASK 1

» Draw a model of hexagonal box..

Example of Question

5.) A total of 28 handshakes were exchanged at

a party. Each person shook hands exactly
once with each of the others. How many
people were present at the party?
TASK 3
» Work backwards…
 Example of Questions
5.) A total of 28 handshakes were exchanged at a party.
Each person shook hands exactly once with each of the
others. How many people were present at the party?

6.) At a party recently, I noticed that every person shook

hands with each other person exactly one time. If I told
you there were 66 handshakes, could you tell me how
many people were at the party?
TASK 3
»  Look for patterns…
 4.) Managing It All
 Knowledge base of domain specific
information, algorithms, and a repertoire of
heuristics are not sufficient during problem
solving.
 The students must construct some decision
mechanism to select from among the available
heuristics, or to develop new ones.
 Metacognition…..
 Long ago, Dewey emphasized self-reflection in
the solving of problems; metacognition.
 Metacognition is “One’s knowledge concerning
one’s own cognitive processes and products or
anything related to them” Flavell (1976).
 Metacognition theory holds that such thought
can monitor, direct, and control one’s own
cognition.
5.) Looking Back
 Looking back is the set of activities that provides the
primary opportunity for tudents to learn from the
problem.

 The phase was identified by Polya with admonitions to

examine the solution by such activities as checking
the result, checking the argument, deriving the result
differently, using the result or the method for some
other problem, reinterpreting the problem,
interpreting the result, or stating a new problem to
solve.
 6) Problem Posing

 Is a tool for developing and strengthening

critical thinking skills. It is an inductive
questioning process that structures dialogue in
the classroom (Sarah Nixon-Ponder).

 Involves the generation of new problem about

the situation or the reformulation of a given
problem (English, 1997; Silver and Cai, 1996)
 From the definitions of problem posing, we know that
problem posing is the strategy that encourages the
generation of new problems by changing the
conditions of a current problem.

 For example, given the Pythagorean Theorem where a 2

+ b2 = c2. After a discussion of the attributes, the teacher
may ask “what if a2 + b2 < c2?” Through this discussion,
the students will generate the new problems.

c
a

b
Summary of Problem Solving
as A Process

Question 1 in TASK 4:-

In isosceles triangle ABC, AB=AC and
the attitude to BC is 20. if the perimeter
of the triangle is 80, find the area of the
triangle.
Problem Solving as A Process…

1.) Domain specific knowledge: know the shape of isosceles

triangle and the feature of the shape.
2.) Algorithms: know the procedure or concept to find the length
of both unknown sides; Pythagorean Theorem
3.) Heuristics: draw the diagram of isosceles.
4.) Managing it all: monitor and reflect whether the way of
calculation is logic or not.
5.) Looking back: check the result/answer by using other
methods.
6.) Problem posing: ask self, what happen if a2 + b2 < c2 instead of
a2 + b2 = c2? Then, try to discuss with other people for better
understanding the concept.
4 Stages of Problem Solving…is
called A Process
i) Understand and explore the problem (domain specific
knowledge and know the algorithm/procedure that can
be use)
ii) Find a strategy (know the heuristic/technique that can
be use)
iii) Use the strategy to solve the problem (apply the
suitable heuristic and managing it all)
iv) Look back and reflect on solution (looking back the
solution and pose the problem/think inversely about
the result)
Address on how instruction
can best develop this
ability.

Athirah
What is mathematics????
National Council of Teaching
Mathematics (NCTM)
 Problem solving as focus of school
mathematics ~ pose fundamental questions
nature
 Art of problem solving is
of mathematics

 Design Mathematics instruction ~ experience

mathematics as problem solving
Why problem solving????

1. Major part of mathematics~ sum and

substance of discipline
2. Mathematics have application which
represent important problems.
3. Intrinsic motivation embedded~ can
stimulate interest and enthusiasm
4. Fun~ use as recreation
5. Develop art of problem solving
Teachers rationale for not
include problem solving
activities

 School mathematics instruction

 Includes argument:
 Difficult
 Takes too much times
 Mathematics is sequential
 Not in the text book
Problem solving as an
instructional method

 To accomplish the instructional goal of

learning basic facts , concepts and procedures
as well as goals for problem solving is within
the problem context.

 To introduce concepts via lesson involving

exploration & discovery
Belief about mathematics problem
solving
 Curriculum & Evaluation Standards ~
students need to view themselves as capable
of using their growing mathematical
knowledge

 Schoenfold ~ students belief that:

1-mathematics help to think clearly and
creative
2- learned best by memorization
 Secondary school mathematics students
~predisposition to view problem solving as
answer getting,

 Mathematics as a set of rules, highly oriented

to do well on test

 Espouse belief~ problem solving are

consistent with reasonably implemented
problem solving focus in school
mathematics!!
Technology and Problem
Solving

Syazwani
This research views:
 The importance of technology as a tool for
mathematics problem solving.
 The development of a computer program to
perform mathematical task can be challenging
mathematical problem and can enhance the
programmer’s understanding of the
mathematics being used.
 The technology used helped students to better
understand function concepts and improved
student attitudes toward problem solving.
Programming as Problem Solving

 Iteration in Mathematics.
 Also called successive approximation. a
problem-solving or computational method in
which a succession of approximations, each
building on the one preceding, is used to
achieve a desired degree of accuracy.
Some Programming in problem
solving
 Maple software
-Maple is a general-purpose commercial
computer algebra system.

 SPSS
-Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
-Analysis of data in research
Maple software
Example:
Answer:

By using maple software:

int(cos(x/a), x);
SPSS
Evaluation on problem
solving
How to evaluate the progress in
problem solving?
 “The success of mathematics programs and
student learning must be evaluated by a wider
range of measures than conventional testing”
NCTM
 Classroom Research

 Analyze the students’ overall progress as well

as their reactions to the notebooks in order to
asses the effectiveness of the evaluation
process.
 Diagnosing students’
cognitive processes
 By evaluating the amount and type of help
needed by an individual during a problem
solving activity.
 Dynamic Assessment
 Students are given mathematics problems to
solve

 The assessor then begins to provide as little help

as necessary to the students throughout their
problem solving activity

 The amount and type of help needed can

provide good insight into students’ problem
solving activities, as well as their ability to learn
and apply new principles.
 The Use of Hints

The power of the hint technique seems to lie in its

ability to identify those particular students in
need o special kinds of help
Trismen

 Problems were developed such that the

methods of solutions were not readily
apparent to students.
 A sequence of hints was then developed for
each item.
The Use of Three Boards in
Group
 A learning leader (teacher or peer) guides the group
in solving the problem through the use of three
boards

 The students able to discuss and reflect on their

approaches by visually tracing their joint work

Planning Representation Doing

Board Board Board
Campione, Brown and Connell stated
that from this method:

The students’ engagement, enthusiasm and

also performance in problem solving are
increased
 Clinical Approach

 Evaluate individual’s thinking process

 Evaluate progress in problem solving

 Example: thinking aloud may be canonically

achieved within the classroom by placing the
students in cooperative groups.

 Students may express their problem solving

strategies aloud and we may able to assess their
thinking processes and attitudes unobtrusively.
Interview & Self-Report

 Students are asked to reflect on their

problem solving experience
Example: reflective journal

 Often used in problem solving research

Scoring Students’ Written Work

 Test on :
-personal judgment
-questions about mathematical problem
solving
 TESTING
VS
PROBLEM SOLVING
 Testing Problem Solving

-Emphasizes answer -Emphasizes on how to

getting. solve the problem.
-Need to cover a lots of -Developing desirable and
materials (syllabus) understanding of the
knowledge
-Not wide variety of ability -Create variety of ability to
to solve question solve question
 Thus a teacher of mathematics has a great
opportunity. If he fills his allotted time with drilling
his students in routine operations he kills their
interest, hampers their intellectual development,
and misuses his opportunity. But if he challenges the
curiosity of his students by setting them problems
proportionate to their knowledge, and helps them to
solve their problems with stimulating questions, he
may give them a taste for, and some means of,
independent thinking.
Polya
Conclusion
 As a pre-service teacher, we should emphasize the
students to involve in problem solving.
 Problem solving increase students’ critical and
creative thinking.
 We should not emphasize on exam-oriented only but
develop our students’ critical and creative thinking.
 Mathematics teacher who must create the context for
problem solving to flourish and for students to
become problem solvers.
 Mathematical problem solving is very significant to
our life.