Programming Logic and Design

Ninth Edition

Chapter 3
Understanding Structure

Programming Logic and Design, Ninth Edition 1

 Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn about:
• The disadvantages of unstructured spaghetti code
• The three basic structures—sequence, selection, and
loop
• Using a priming input to structure a program
• The need for structure
• Recognizing structure
• Structuring and modularizing unstructured logic

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The Disadvantages of Unstructured

•
Spaghetti
Spaghetti code
Code
– Logically snarled program statements
– Often a complicated mess
– Programs often work but are difficult to read and maintain
– Confusing and prone to error
• Unstructured programs
– Do not follow the rules of structured logic
• Structured programs
– Follow the rules of structured logic

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 Unstructured Spaghetti Code

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures
• Structure
– Basic unit of programming logic
– Each structure is one of the following:
• Sequence structure
• Selection structure (decision structure)
• Loop structure
– any program can be constructed using one or more of
these three structures

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 Understanding the Three Basic
Structures (continued)

• Sequence structure
– Perform actions or tasks in order
– No branching or skipping any task
• Selection structure (decision structure)
– Ask a question, take one of two actions based on testing a
condition. Known as evaluating a Boolean expression, a
statement that is either true or false
– Often called if-then-else
– Dual-alternative ifs or single-alternative ifs
• Loop structure
– Repeat actions while a condition remains true

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 The Sequence Structure

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 The Selection Structure

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 The Selection Structure (continued -1)

• Dual-alternative ifs
– Contains two alternatives
– The if-then-else structure

if someCondition is true then

do oneProcess
else
do theOtherProcess
endif

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 The Selection Structure (continued -2)

• Single-alternative ifs

if employee belongs to dentalPlan then

deduct $40 from employeeGrossPay

– An else clause is not required

• null case
– Situation where nothing is done

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 The Selection Structure (continued -3)

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 The Loop Structure

• Loop structure
– Repeats a set of actions while a condition remains true
• Loop body
– Also called repetition or iteration
– Condition is tested first in the most common form of loop
– The while…do or while loop

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 The Loop Structure (continued -1)

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 The Loop Structure (continued -2)

• Loop structure
while testCondition continues to be true
do someProcess
endwhile
while you continue to be hungry
take another bite of food
determine if you still feel hungry
endwhile

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 Combining Structures
• All logic problems can be solved using only sequence,
selection, and loop
• Structures can be combined in an infinite number of
ways
• Stacking structures
– Attaching structures end-to-end
• End-structure statement
– Indicates the end of a structure
– The endif statement ends an if-then-else structure
– The endwhile statement ends a loop structure
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 Combining Structures (continued -1)

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 Combining Structures (continued -2)

• Any individual task or step in a structure can be

replaced by a structure
• Nesting structures
– Placing one structure within another
– Indent the nested structure’s statements
• Block
– A group of statements that execute as a single unit

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 Combining Structures (continued -3)

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 Combining Structures (continued -4)

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 Combining Structures (continued -5)

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 Combining Structures (continued -6)

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 Combining Structures (continued -7)

• Structured programs have the following

characteristics:
– Include only combinations of the three basic structures
– Each structure has a single entry point and a single exit
point
– Structures can be stacked or connected to one another
only at their entry or exit points
– Any structure can be nested within another structure

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 Using a Priming Input to Structure
a Program
• Priming input (or priming read)
– Reads the first input data record
– Is outside the loop that reads the rest of the records
– Helps keep the program structured
• Analyze a flowchart for structure one step at a time
• Watch for unstructured loops that do not follow this
order
– First ask a question
– Take action based on the answer
– Return to ask the question again

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 Using a Priming Input to Structure
a Program (continued -1)

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 Using a Priming Input to Structure
a Program (continued -2)

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 Using a Priming Input to Structure
a Program (continued -3)

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 Using a Priming Input to Structure
a Program (continued -4)

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 Understanding the Reasons for
Structure
• Use structured programming for:
– Clarity—unstructured programs are confusing
– Professionalism—other programmers expect it
– Efficiency—most languages support it
– Maintenance —other programmers find it easier to read
– Modularity —easily broken down into modules
• Structured programming is sometimes called goto-
less programming

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 Recognizing Structure

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 Recognizing
Structure (continued -1)

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 Recognizing
Structure (continued -2)

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 Recognizing
Structure (continued -3)

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 Recognizing
Structure (continued -4)

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 Summary
• Spaghetti code
– Statements that do not follow rules of structured logic
• Three basic structures
– Sequence, selection, and loop
– Combined by stacking and nesting
• Priming input
– Statement that reads the first input value prior to starting
a structured loop

Programming Logic and Design, Ninth Edition 34

 Summary (continued)

• Structured techniques promote:

– Clarity
– Professionalism
– Efficiency
– Modularity
• Flowcharts can be made structured by untangling
logic
• Logical steps can be rewritten to conform to the
three structures: sequence, selection, and loop

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