Hardware & Network Servicing

Level III

UC2: Determine Best Fit Topology

LO1: Introduction to Computer Network

1
Introduction to Computer Network
2
 A network is a group of connected computers that allows people to share

resources.

Advantage of a computer network

 File , Hardware and software sharing
 Increased Storage Capacity
 Centralized administration and support
 Decreased cost
Disadvantage of a computer network
 Security issue
 Rapid spread of computer virus
 Expensive setup
 Dependency on the main server
Kinds of Network
3

• Depending on different perspective, we can classify networks in

different ways

• Based on transmission media: Wired (UTP, coaxial cables, fiber-optic

cables) and Wireless

• Based on network size: LAN,WAN and MAN

• Based on management method: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server

• Based on topology (connectivity): Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh …

Computer Network Based on Network Size
4

1) Local Area Network (LAN)

• A LAN network is a short-distance network.

• LAN is a computer network covering a small geographic area, like a

home, office, or group of buildings.

• Limited by no. of computers and distance covered

2) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• Refers to a network of computers with in a City.

• Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network that interconnects users

with computer resources in a geographic area or region larger than that
covered by even a large local area network (LAN) but smaller than the
area covered by a wide area network (WAN).
Computer Network Based on Network Size
Cont..
5

3) Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a broad

area.

• A WAN is a collection of LAN networks.

• LANs connect to other LANs with the help of a router. The router has a
LAN address and a WAN address, which lets it send data to the desired
location.

• Internet or internetworking is the biggest WAN in the world or is the

Communication between networks.
Computer Network Based on Mgt Method
6

Computer Role in Networking

• Server computer is a core component of the network, providing a link to

the resources necessary to perform any task.

• Client computers normally request and receive information over the

network client. Client computers also depends primarily on the central
server for processing activities
Computer Network Based on Mgt Method
7

1) Peer to Peer Network

• In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no

hierarchy among the computers.

• All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers.

• Each computer functions as both a client and a server, and there is no

administrator responsible for the entire network.

• Peer to peer network are also called Workgroup.

Peer-to peer network (cont..)
8

Where a Peer-to-Peer Network Is Appropriate

 Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:

 There are 10 users or fewer.

 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized

servers exist.

 Security is not an issue.

The organization and the network will experience only limited growth
within the foreseeable future.
Advantages & Disadvantages of peer-to-peer
Networks
9

• Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:

• Easy to install and configure
• The cost of installation and operation is less
• A full time network administrator is not required

• Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:

• Shared resources can be accessed by everyone
• Backup has to be performed on each computer separately
• No centralized security
 10

2) Server Based Network

• A dedicated server is one that functions only as a server and is not used as a
client or workstation.

• Advantages of server based networks:

• Centralized resources
 Easier to backup files
• Easier to find files
• Efficient
• Security
 One machine can secure entire network
 One central login
• Scalability
 11

• Disadvantages of Server based networks:

• If the server goes down, it takes part or the whole
network with it
• It is more expensive to install
• Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT skills
Specialized Servers
12

 Servers must perform varied and complex tasks.

 Servers for large networks have become specialized to accommodate the
expanding needs of users.
 Following are examples of different types of servers included on many
large networks

• File and print servers:- manage user access and use of file and
printer resources.

• Application servers:- make the server side of client/server

applications, as well as the data, available to clients.
 13

• Mail servers:- operate like application servers in that there are separate
server and client applications, with data selectively downloaded from the
server to the client.
• Fax servers:- manage fax traffic into and out of the network by sharing
one or more fax modem boards.

• Communications servers:- handle data flow and e-mail messages

between the servers' own networks and other networks, mainframe
computers, or remote users who dial in to the servers over modems and
telephone lines.
• Directory services:- servers enable users to locate, store, and secure
information on the network
Network Topology
14

 The term topology, or more specifically, network topology, refers to the

arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components
on the network.

 A network's topology affects its capabilities. The choice of one topology

over another will have an impact on the:
o Type of equipment the network needs.
o Capabilities of the equipment.
o Growth of the network.
o Way the network is managed.
Categories of Topology
15

 Logical: describes the way network data flows through the physical
components.
 Physical: Physical topology describes how the physical components on a
network are connected.
Standard Topology
 Bus
 Star / Tree
 Ring
 Mesh
 Hybrid
Bus Topology
16

• The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because

the computers are connected in a straight line.
•This is the simplest and most common method of networking
computers.
Communication on the Bus
17

 Computers on a bus topology network communicate by addressing data to

a particular computer and sending out that data on the cable as electronic
signals.

 To understand how computers communicate on a bus, you need to be

familiar with three concepts:

 Sending the signal

 Signal bounce
 Terminator
 18

 Sending the Signal Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to
all the computers on the network.
 Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the
original signal accepts the information.
 All other computers reject the data.
 Only one computer at a time can send messages.
 Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the
number of computers attached to the bus will affect network performance.
 The more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be waiting
to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be.
 19

 Signal Bounce Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire
network, it travels from one end of the cable to the other.
 If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back
and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals.
 Therefore, the signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the
proper destination address.

 Terminator To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a

terminator is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free signals.
 Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other computers can send data.
Disadvantages of Bus topology
20

 If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if an end is not terminated, the

signal will travel back and forth across the network and all communication
will stop.
 The more computers there are on the bus, the greater the backup of
computers waiting to put data on the bus, and consequently, the slower the
network.
 In addition, because of the way computers communicate in a bus topology,
there may be a lot of noise. Noise is the traffic generated on the network
when computers attempt to communicate with each other simultaneously.
Star Topology
21

 In the star topology, cable segments

from each computer are connected to a
centralized component called a hub or
switch.

 Signals are transmitted from the

sending computer through the hub to all
computers on the network
Advantages of Star topology
22

 An advantage of the star topology is that if one computer on the star

topology fails, only the failed computer is unable to send or receive data. The
remainder of the network functions normally.

Disadvantages of Star topology

 The disadvantage of using this topology is that because each computer is
connected to a hub, if the hub fails, the entire network fails. In addition, noise
is created on the network in a star topology.
Ring Topology
23

 The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable.

 Unlike the bus topology, there are no terminated ends.

 The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each
computer, which can act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to
the next computer
Method of Data Transmission in Ring Topology
24

 One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing.

 A token is a special series of bits that travels around a token-ring network.
Each network has only one token.
 The token is passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer
that has data to send.
 The sending computer modifies the token, puts an electronic address on
the data, and sends it around the ring.
 The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address
that matches the address on the data.
 25

 The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer

indicating that the data has been received.
 After verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases
it on the network.
 The token circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to send
data.
Advantages of Ring topology
26

 The advantage of a ring topology is that each computer acts as a repeater,

regenerating the signal and sending it on to the next computer, thereby
preserving signal strength.

Disadvantages of Ring topology

 The disadvantage of a ring topology is that only one computer at a time
can send data on a single token ring.
 Also, ring topologies are usually more expensive than bus technologies.
 If one computer fails, the network will fail
Mesh Topology
27

 A mesh topology network offers greater redundancy and reliability.

 In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer
by separate cabling.
 This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so
that if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic.

 While no difficulty of troubleshooting and increased reliability are definite

pluses, these networks are expensive to install because they use a lot of
cabling. Often, a mesh topology will be used in conjunction with other
topologies to form a hybrid topology.
 28

Advantages of Mesh topology

 An advantage of a mesh topology is its back-up capabilities by providing
multiple paths through the network.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
 Because redundant paths require more cable than is needed in other
topologies, a mesh topology can be expensive.
Hybrid Topology
29

 It is a combination of two or more standard topologies

Star Bus Topology

 The star bus is a combination of the bus and star topologies.
In a star-bus topology, several star topology networks are linked together
with linear bus trunks.
 If one computer goes down, it will not affect the rest of the network. The
other computers can continue to communicate.
 If a hub goes down, all computers on that hub are unable to communicate.
 If a hub is linked to other hubs, those connections will be broken as well.
30
Star Ring Topology
31

 The star ring (sometimes called

a star-wired ring) appears similar
to the star bus.
 Both the star ring and the star
bus are centered in a hub that
contains the actual ring or bus.
 Linear-bus trunks connect the
hubs in a star bus, while the hubs
in a star ring are connected in a
star pattern by the main hub.
Selecting a Topology
32
 Guidelines for selecting a topology.
Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus  Use of cable is economical.  Heavy traffic.

 Inexpensive Cost.  Difficult to isolate problem.
 Simple and reliable.  Cable break can affect many
 Bus is easy to extend. users.

Ring  Equal access for all  Failure of one computer can

computers. impact the rest of the network.
 Performance is even despite  Problems are hard to isolate.
many users.  Network reconfiguration
disrupts operation.
 33

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Star  Modifying system and adding new If the centralized point

computers is easy. fails, the network fails.
 Centralized monitoring and
management are possible.
 Failure of one computer does not
affect the rest of the network.

Mesh  System provides increased System is expensive to

redundancy and reliability as well as install because it uses a
ease of troubleshooting. lot of cabling.
Network Transmission Media
34

 Transmission Medium is the physical path between transmitter and

receiver in a data communication system.
 The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by
 The characteristics of the medium and
 The characteristics of the signal.

 Media of data transmission:

1. Guided Transmission media- Data transmission is through solid
medium (wired system).
2. Unguided Transmission media– Data transmission through air
/space (i.e. wireless system)
Guided Transmission Media (Cable)
35

 Transmission capacity of guided media is described with respect to:

o Data transmission rate
o Bandwidth
o Distance the media can run
 Commonly there are three Types of Cables
o Twisted pair
o Coaxial cable
o Optical fiber
Coaxial Cable
36

 Coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded by insulation, a

braided metal shielding, and an outer cover.

Shielding protects transmitted data by absorbing stray electronic signals,

called noise, so that they do not get onto the cable and distort the data.

 The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the
data. This wire core is usually copper.
 37

A material Surrounding the core is a dielectric insulating layer that

separates the core from the wire mesh.
 The braided wire mesh acts as a ground and protects the core from
electrical noise and crosstalk.
 A no conducting outer shield usually made of rubber, Teflon, or plastic
surrounds the entire cable.

 Coaxial cable is more resistant to

interference and attenuation than
twisted-pair cabling
Types of Coaxial Cable
38

 The re are two types of coaxial cable:

1. Thin (thinnet) cable
2. Thick (thicknet) cable

Thinnet Cable
 Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25
inches) thick.
 Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can
be used in almost any type of network installation.
 Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to
approximately 185 meters .
 39

Thicknet Cable
 Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters
(0.5 inches) in diameter.
 Thicknet cable is sometimes referred to as Standard Ethernet because it
was the first type of cable used with the popular network architecture
Ethernet.
 Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a thinnet cable core. The
thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals.
This means that thicknet can carry signals farther than thinnet cable.
Thicknet cable can carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1640 feet).
Coaxial Cable Connector Hardware
40

 Both thinnet and thicknet cable use a connection component, known as a

BNC connector, to make the connections between the cable and the
computers
Twisted Pair Cable
41

 Twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of copper wire

twisted around each other
 A number of twisted-pair wires are often grouped together and
enclosed in a protective sheath to form a cable.
 The twisting stop out electrical noise from adjacent pairs and from other
sources such as motors, relays, and transformers.
 There are Two types of twisted pair cable
1. Unshielded twisted pair cable(UTP)
2. Shielded twisted pair cable (STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
42

 UTP is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast becoming
the most popular LAN cabling.
 The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters.
 There are seven categories of UTP
 Category 1 This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can
carry voice but not data transmissions. Most telephone cable prior
to 1983 was Category 1 cable.
 Category 2 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions
up to 4 megabits per second (Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs
of copper wire.
 43
 Category 3 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions
up to 16 Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Category 4 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions
up to 20 Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Category 5 This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions
up to 100 Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
 Category 6 wire was originally designed to support gigabit Ethernet
It is similar to CAT5 wire, but contains a physical separator between
the 4 pairs to further reduce electromagnetic interference.
 Category 7
44
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
45

 STP cable uses a woven copper-braid jacket that is more protective and
of a higher quality than the jacket used by UTP.
 STP also uses a foil wrap around each of the wire pairs.
 This gives STP excellent shielding to protect the transmitted data from
outside interference, which in turn allows it to support higher
transmission rates over longer distances than UTP.

STP UTP
Twisted Pair Cable Connector Hardware
46

 Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 to connect to a computer. These are

similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors.
 The RJ-45 connector is slightly larger and will not fit into the RJ-11
telephone jack.
 The RJ-45 connector houses eight cable connections, while the RJ-11
houses only four.
Fiber Optic Cable
47

 In fiber-optic cable, optical fibers carry digital data signals in the form of
modulated pulses of light.
 This is a relatively safe way to send data because, unlike copper-based
cables that carry data in the form of electronic signals.
 No electrical impulses are carried over the fiber-optic cable. This means
that fiber optic cable cannot be tapped, and its data cannot be stolen.
 Fiber-optic cable is good for very high-speed, high-capacity data
transmission because of the purity of the signal and lack of signal
attenuation.
 48

 Fiber-optic cable transmissions are currently can transmitt about 100

Mbps with demonstrated rates of up to 1 gigabit per second (Gbps).
Fiber Optic Cabling Consideration
49

 Use fiber-optic cable if you:

 Need to transmit data at very high speeds over long distances in
very secure media.
 Do not use fiber-optic cable if you:
 Are under a tight budget.
 Do not have the expertise available to properly install it and connect
devices to it.
Consideration for Cable Selection
50

 The cabling has different requirements

 Installation Logistics:- How easy is the cable to install and work with
other components?
 In a small installation where distances are short and security isn't a
major issue, it does not make sense to choose thick, weighty, and
expensive cable.

 Shielding:- The level of shielding required will affect cable cost.

 The noisier the area in which the cable is run, the more shielding
will be required.
 51

 Crosstalk/Resistance to Environmental Conditions :- Crosstalk and

noise can cause serious problems in large networks where data
integrity/truthfulness is crucial.

 Transmission Rates:- Transmission rates are measured in megabits

per second.
 A standard reference point for current LAN transmission over
copper cable is 100 Mbps.
 Fiber-optic cable transmits at more than 1 Gbps..
 Bandwidth :- the maximum capacity that transmit greater amount
of data.
 52

 Cost:- Higher grades of cables can carry data securely over long
distances, but they are relatively expensive; lower-grade cables, which
provide less data security over shorter distances, are relatively
inexpensive.

 Distance :- the distance between two device that is connected by the

transmission media.

Guided Transmission Media

Summary Table
Unguided (Wireless) Transmission Media
53

 Wireless LANs use the following techniques for transmitting data:

1. Infrared transmission
2. Laser transmission

Infrared Transmission
All infrared wireless networks operate by using an infrared light beam to
carry the data between devices.
These systems need to generate very strong signals because weak
transmission signals are at risk to interference from light sources such as
skylight.
 54

 This method can transmit signals at high rates because of infrared light's
high bandwidth.
 An infrared network can normally broadcast at 10 Mbps.
 Infrared transmission mostly used to remote control system.
 In infrared transmission the communicating bodies should be
 In direct line of sight
 If there is any body in between the communicating bodies will be
unable to communicate
 Can not be used outdoors
 55

Laser transmission
 Typically used where laying a cable is not practical
Terrestrial/Global Microwave
 Transmits/receives electromagnetic waves in the 2-40 GHz range
 Travels in a straight line (line-of-sight propagation)
 High data transmission rates: 100’s Mbps
 Repeaters spaced 10 - 100 km apart
 56

 Satellite Microwave
 Uses satellite in geostationary 36,000 kmorbit
 Source transmits signal to satellite which amplifies or repeats it, and
retransmits down to destinations
 Bandwidth of 100’s MHz
 VSAT ( Very small Aperture Terminal) :- High speed data
transmission using satellite.  
Introduction to Network Operating System
57

 Just as a computer cannot operate without a computer operating

system, a network of computers cannot operate without a network
operating system.
 The computer network needs both operating systems in order to handle
stand-alone and networking functions together.
 Network operating system software is integrated into a number of
popular operating systems including
 Windows 2000 Server/Windows 2000 Professional,
 Windows NT Server/Windows NT Workstation,
 Windows 98, Windows 95, windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7
and AppleTalk.
Coordinating Hardware & Software
58

 A computer's operating system coordinates the interaction between the

computer and the programs or applications it is running.
 It controls the allocation and use of hardware resources such as:
- Memory. - CPU time.
- Disk space. - Peripheral devices.
 In a networking environment, servers provide resources to the network
clients, and client network software makes these resources available to
the client computer.
 The network and the client operating systems are coordinated so that all
portions of the network function properly. 
 59
 A network operating system
 Ties together all computers, peripherals and also the network.
 Provides security by controlling access to data and peripherals.
Uses of Server/Network OS
60

Multitasking
A multitasking operating system, as the name suggests, provides the
means for a computer to process more than one task at a time.
Resource Sharing
Sharing is the term used to describe resources made publicly available for
access by anyone on the network.
Most NOSs not only allow sharing, but also determine the degree of
sharing.
Options for sharing include:
 Allowing different users different levels of access to the resources.
 Coordinating access to resources to make sure that two users do not
use the same resource at the same time.
 61

Managing Users
Network operating systems also allow a network administrator to
determine which people, or groups of people, will be able to access network
resources.
A network administrator can use the NOS to:
 Create user privileges, tracked by the network operating system,
that indicate who gets to use the network.
 Remove users from the list of users that the network operating
system tracks.
 62

Managing the Network

Advanced NOSs include management tools to help administrators.
If a problem develops on the network, management tools can detect signs
of trouble and present these in a chart, or other, format.
With these tools, the network manager can take corrective action before
the problem halts the network. 

Network Software
 There are two major types of network software:
1. Network software that is installed on clients.
2. Network software that is installed on servers.
Network Access Method
63

 In networking, to access a resource is to be able to use that resource.

The Function of Access Methods

The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network
cable and takes data from the cable is called an access method.
Once data is moving on the network, access methods help to regulate the
flow of network traffic.
Traffic Control on the Cable
64

 A network is in some ways like a railroad track, along which several

trains run. When a train is on the track, all other trains must stand by a
procedure that governs how and when they enter the flow of traffic.
 Without such a procedure, entering trains would collide with the one
already on the track.
 There are important differences between a railroad system and a
computer network, However, on a network, all traffic appears to move
simultaneously, without interruption.
 Actually, this appearance of simultaneity is an illusion; in reality, the
computers take turns accessing the network for short periods of time.
 65

 The more significant difference arises from the higher speed at which
network traffic moves.
 However, if two computers were to put data onto the cable at the same
time, the data packets from one computer would collide with the packets
from the other computer, and both sets of data packets would be
destroyed.
 If data is to be sent over the network from one user to another, or
accessed from a server, there must be some way for the data to access
the cable without running into other data.
 And the receiving computer must have reasonable assurance that the
data has not been destroyed in a data collision during transmission.
 66

 By making sure that only one computer at a time can put data on the
network cable, access methods ensure that the sending and receiving of
network data is an orderly process.
Major Access Methods
The three methods designed to prevent simultaneous use of the network
media include:
1. Carrier-sense multiple access methods (with collision detection or
with collision avoidance).
2. Token-passing methods that allow only a single opportunity to send
data.
3. Demand-priority methods.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) Access Method
67

 Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision

detection (CSMA/CD), each computer on the network, including clients
and servers, checks the cable for network traffic
 Only when a computer "senses" that the cable is free and that there is no
traffic on the cable can it send data.
 Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer
can transmit data until the original data has reached its destination and
the cable is free again.
 Remember, if two or more computers happen to send data at exactly the
same time, there will be a data collision.
 68

 When data collusion happens, the two computers involved stop

transmitting for a random period of time and then attempt to
retransmit.
 Each computer agree on its own waiting period; this reduces the chance
that the computers will once again transmit simultaneously.
 With these points in mind, the name of the access method—carrier-
sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)—makes
sense. Computers listen to or "sense" the cable (carrier-sense).
 Commonly, many computers on the network attempt to transmit data
(multiple access); each one first listens to detect any possible collisions.
 69

 If a computer detects a possible collision, it waits for a random period of

time before retransmitting (collision detection)
 The collision detection mechanism is not effective beyond 2500 meters
 If more than one computer transmits data on the network at the same
time, a data collision will take place that will corrupt the data
 CSMA/CD is known as a contention method because computers on the
network contend, or compete, for an opportunity to send data.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA) Access Method
70

 Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the

least popular of the three major access methods.
 In CSMA/CA, each computer transmit a signals before it actually
transmits data. In this way, computers sense when a collision might
occur; this allows them to avoid transmission collisions.
 Unfortunately, broadcasting the signal to transmit data increases the
amount of traffic on the cable and slows down network performance.
Token-Passing Access Method
71

 In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet,

called a token, circulates around a cable ring from computer to
computer.
 When any computer on the ring needs to send data across the network,
it must wait for a free token.
 When a free token is detected, the computer will take control of it if the
computer has data to send. The computer can now transmit data.
 Data is transmitted in frames, and additional information, such as
addressing, is attached to the frame in the form of headers and trailers.
Demand Priority Access Method
72

 Demand priority is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-
Mbps Ethernet standard known as 100VG-AnyLAN.
 The repeater, or hub, is responsible for all addresses, links, and end
nodes and verifying that they are all functioning.
 According to the 100VG-Any LAN definition, an end node can be a
computer, bridge, router, or switch.
Demand-Priority Conflict
 As in CSMA/CD, two computers using the demand-priority access
method can cause fight by transmitting at exactly the same time.
 73
 However, with demand priority, it is possible to implement a scheme in
which certain types of data will be given priority if there is conflict.
 If the hub or repeater receives two requests at the same time, the
highest priority request is serviced first.
 If the two requests are of the same priority, both requests are serviced
by broken between the two.
 In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at
the same time because of the cabling scheme defined for this access
method.
 In this method, four pairs of wires are used, which enables quartet
signaling, transmitting 25 MHz signals on each of the pairs of wire in the
cable.
 74

Demand-Priority Considerations
 In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the
sending computer, the hub, and the destination computer.
 This is more efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts transmissions to
the entire network.
 In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end nodes and
repeaters directly connected to it, whereas in a CSMA/CD environment,
each hub knows the address of every node in the network.
 75

Demand priority offers several advantages over CSMA/CD including:

The use of four pairs of wires.
 By using four pairs of wires, computers can transmit and receive at
the same time.
Transmissions through the hub.
 Transmissions are not broadcast to all the other computers on the
network.
 The computers do not compete on their own for access to the cable,
but operate under the centralized control of the hub
Packet Structure
76

  Packet is a section of data sent from one computer or device to another

over a network.
 A packet contains the source, destination, size, type, data, and other
useful information that helps packet get to its destination and read.
Packet Component
77
 All packets have certain components in common. These include:
 A source address that identifies the sending computer.
 The data that is intended for transmission.
 A destination address that identifies the recipient.
 Instructions that tell network components how to pass the data
along.
 Information that tells the receiving computer how to connect the
packet to other packets in order to reassemble the complete data
package.
 Error-checking information to ensure that the data arrives together.
 78

Packet

Header
 The header includes:
 An alert signal to indicate that the packet is being transmitted.
 The source address.
 The destination address.
 Information to synchronize/match transmission.
 79

Data
 This describes the actual data being sent.
 This part of the packet varies in size, depending on the network.
 The data section on most networks varies from 512 bytes—or 0.5
kilobytes (KB)—to 4 KB.
 Because most original data strings are much longer than 4kb, data must
be broken into chunks small enough to be put into packets.
 It takes many packets to complete the transmission of a large file.
Trailer /Promo
 The exact content of the trailer varies depending on the communication
method, or protocol.
 80

 However, the trailer usually contains an error-checking component

called a cyclical redundancy check (CRC).
 The CRC is a number produced by a mathematical calculation on the
packet at its source.
 When the packet arrives at its destination, the calculation is made again.
 If the results of both calculations are the same, this indicates that the
data in the packet has remained stable
 If the calculation at the destination differs from the calculation at the
source, this means the data has changed during the transmission.
 In that case, the CRC routine signals the source computer to retransmit
the data.
Ethernet
81
 Ethernet has become the most popular media access method to the
desktop computer and is used in both small and large network
environments.
Ethernet Features
Ethernet is currently the most popular network architecture. Notice that
the cable is terminated at both ends.
This baseband architecture uses a bus topology, usually transmits at 10
Mbps,& relies on CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the main cable segment.
The Ethernet media is passive, which means it requires no power source of
its own and thus will not fail unless the media is physically cut or improperly
terminated.
The Ethernet Frame Format
82
 Ethernet breaks data down into packages in a format that is different
from the packets used in other networks:
 Ethernet breaks data down into frames. (Remember that the terms
"packet" and "frame" can be used interchangeably; in the context of
Ethernet, the term "frame" is used.)
 A frame is a package of information transmitted as a single unit.
 An Ethernet frame can be between 64 and 1518 bytes long, but the
Ethernet frame itself uses at least 18 bytes; therefore, the data in an
Ethernet frame can be between 46 and 1500 bytes long.
 Every frame contains control information and follows the same basic
organization.
 83

Ethernet Frame/Packet

Frame field Description

Preamble Marks the start of the frame
Destination and source The origin and destination addresses
Type Used to identify the network layer
protocol, usually either IP or IPX
(Internetwork Packet Exchange)
Cyclical redundancy check Error-checking field to determine if the
(CRC) frame arrived without being corrupted
Ethernet Specification
84

1. The 10-Mbps IEEE Standards

This section looks at four 10 Mbps Ethernet topologies:
- 10BaseT - 10Base5
- 10Base2 - 10BaseFL
10BaseT Standard (10 Mbps, baseband, over twisted-pair cable)
10BaseT, is an Ethernet network that typically uses UTP cable to connect
computers. (Usually, STP cabling will also work without changing any of the
10BaseT parameters).
The maximum length of a 10BaseT segment is 100 meters. Repeaters can
be used to extend this maximum cable length.
A 10BaseT LAN will serve 1024 computers.
 85

A multiport repeater
(hub) can be used to
extend an Ethernet LAN

 The UTP cable features data transmission at 10 Mbps.

 It is easy to make changes by moving a modular patch cord on the patch
panel.
 A change at the patch panel will not affect other devices on the network;
this differs from a traditional Ethernet bus network.
 86

 10BaseT Specifications Summary

Category Notes
Cable Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP.
Connectors RJ-45 at cable ends.
Transceiver Each computer needs one; some cards
have built in transceivers.
Transceiver to hub distance 100 meters (328 feet) maximum.
Backbones for hubs Coaxial or fiber-optic cable to join a
larger LAN or to carry major traffic
between smaller networks.
Total number of computers per 1024 by specification.
LAN without connectivity
components
 87

10Base2 Standard
It transmits at 10 Mbps over a baseband wire and can carry a signal about
two times 100 meters (the actual distance is 185 meters)
This type of network uses thin coaxial cable, or thinnet, which has a
maximum segment length of 185 meters (607 feet) and a minimum cable
length of at least 0.5 meters (20 inches) between workstations.
There is also a 30-computer maximum per 185-meter segment.
Thinnet cabling components include:
 BNC barrel connectors.
 BNC T connectors.
 BNC terminators.
 88

 10Base2 Specifications Summary

Category Notes
Maximum segment length 185 meters (607 feet).
Connection to network interface BNC T connector.
card
Trunk segments and repeaters Five segments can be joined using
four repeaters.
Computers per segment 30 computers per segment by
specification.
Segments that can have Three of the five segments can be
computers populated.
Maximum total network length 925 meters (3035 feet).
 89

10Base5 Standard
The IEEE specification for this topology is 10 Mbps, baseband, and 500-
meter (five 100-meter) segments. It is also called standard Ethernet.
This topology makes use of thick coaxial cable , also known as thicknet.
Thicknet generally uses a bus topology and can support as many as 100
nodes (stations, repeaters, and so on) per backbone segment.
The distances and tolerances for thicknet are greater than those for
thinnet: a thicknet segment can be 500 meters (1640 feet) long for a total
network length of 2500 meters (8200 feet).
 90

 10Base5 Specifications Summary

Category Notes
Maximum segment length 500 meters (1640 feet).
Transceivers Connected to the segment (in the
tap).
Maximum computer-to-transceiver distance 50 meters (164 feet).
Minimum distance between transceivers 2.5 meters (8 feet).
Trunk segments and repeaters Five segments can be joined
using four repeaters.
Segments that can have computers Three of the five segments can be
populated.
Maximum total length of joined segments 2500 meters (8200 feet).
Maximum number of computers per segment 100 by specification.
 91

10BaseFL Standard
The IEEE committee published a specification for running Ethernet over
fiber-optic cable.
The result, 10BaseFL (10Mbps, baseband, over fiber-optic cable) is an
Ethernet network that typically uses fiber-optic cable to connect computers
and repeaters.
The primary reason for using 10BaseFL is to accommodate long cable runs
between repeaters, such as between buildings.
The maximum distance for a 10BaseFL segment is 2000 meters (about
6500 feet).
 92

2. The 100-Mbps IEEE Standards

New Ethernet standards are pushing the traditional Ethernet limits
beyond the original 10 Mbps.
These new capabilities are being developed to handle such high bandwidth
applications as:
 Computer-aided design (CAD).
 Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
 Video.
 Imaging and document storage.
 93

 Two Ethernet standards that can meet the increased demands are:
 100BaseVG-AnyLAN Ethernet.
 100BaseX Ethernet (Fast Ethernet).
 Both 100BaseVG-AnyLAN and Fast Ethernet are about 5 to 10 times
faster than standard Ethernet.
 They are also compatible with existing 10BaseT cabling systems.
 This means they allow for Plug and Play upgrades from existing 10BaseT
installations.
 94

100VG-AnyLAN Standard
The 100VG (Voice Grade) AnyLAN is an emerging networking technology
that combines elements of both Ethernet and Token Ring architectures.
This technology goes by any of the following names, all of which refer to
the same type of network:
 100VG-AnyLAN
 100BaseVG
 VG
 AnyLAN
 95

Specifications
 Some of the current 100VG-AnyLAN specifications include:
 A minimum data rate of 100 Mbps.
 The ability to support a cascaded star topology over Category 3, 4,
and 5 twisted-pair and fiber-optic cable.
 The demand-priority access method that allows for two priority
levels (low and high).
 Support for both Ethernet frames and Token Ring packets.
 96

Topology
 A 100VG-AnyLAN network is built on
a star topology in which all computers
are attached to a hub.
 Adding child hubs to the central hub
can expand the network.
 The child hubs act as computers to
their parent hubs.
 The parent hubs control transmission
of computers attached to their
children.
 97

Considerations
 This topology requires its own hubs and cards. Also, the cable distances
of 100BaseVG are limited when compared to 10BaseVG and other
implementations of Ethernet.
 The longest cable from the 100BaseVG hub to a computer cannot exceed
250 meters (about 820 feet).
 Extending this limit requires special equipment used to expand the size
of a LAN.
 These cable-length limits mean that 100BaseVG will require more wiring
closets than 10BaseVG.
 98

100BaseX Ethernet Standard

This standard, sometimes called Fast Ethernet, is an extension of the
existing Ethernet standard.
It runs on UTP Category 5 data-grade cable and uses CSMA/CD in a star-
wired bus topology, similar to 10BaseT where all cables are attached to a
hub.
 99
Specifications
 100BaseX incorporates three media specifications:
 100BaseT4 (4-pair Category 3, 4, or 5 UTP)
 100BaseTX (2-pair Category 5 UTP or STP)
 100BaseFX (2-strand/string fiber-optic cable)
Value Represents Actual meaning
100 Transmission speed 100 Mbps
Base Signal type Baseband
T4 Cable type Indicates twisted-pair cable using four
telephone-grade pairs
TX Cable type Indicates twisted-pair cable using two
data-grade pairs
FX Cable type Indicates fiber-optic link using two
strands of fiber-optic cable
Segmentation
100
 Ethernet performance can be improved by dividing a packed segment
into two less-populated segments & joining them with a bridge/a router.

 This reduces traffic on each segment. Because fewer computers are

attempting to transmit onto the segment, access time improves.
Using a bridge to
segment a network and
reduce network traffic

 Consider dividing segments if large numbers of new users are joining

the network or if new, high-bandwidth applications, such as database or
video programs, are being added to the network.
Network Operating Systems on Ethernet
101

 Ethernet will work with most popular network operating systems

including:
 Microsoft Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 2000.
 Microsoft Windows NT Workstation and Windows NT Server.
 Microsoft Windows 2000 Professional and Windows 2000 Server.
 Microsoft LAN Manager.
 Microsoft Windows for Workgroups.
 Novell NetWare.
 IBM LAN Server.
 AppleShare.
 UNIX.