Elements of a Computer System

• Hardware
• CPU
• Main memory
• Secondary storage
• Input/Output devices
• Software

1
 Hardware
• CPU
• Main memory: RAM
• Input/output devices
• Secondary storage

2
Central Processing Unit and Main Memory

• Central processing unit

– Brain of the computer
– Most expensive piece of hardware
– Carries out arithmetic and logical operations

3
Central Processing Unit and Main Memory
(cont'd.)

4
 Central Processing Unit and Main Memory
(cont'd.)
• Random access memory
• Directly connected to the CPU
• All programs must be loaded into main
memory before they can be executed
• All data must be brought into main memory
before it can be manipulated
• When computer power is turned off,
everything in main memory is lost
5
 Secondary Storage
• Secondary storage: device that stores
information permanently
• Examples of secondary storage:
– Hard disks
– Flash drives
– Floppy disks
– Zip disks
– CD-ROMs
– Tapes
6
 Input/Output Devices
• Input devices feed data and programs into
computers
– Keyboard
– Mouse
– Secondary storage
• Output devices display results
– Monitor
– Printer
– Secondary storage
7
 Software
• Software: programs that do specific tasks
• System programs take control of the
computer, such as an operating system
• Application programs perform a specific task
– Word processors
– Spreadsheets
– Games

8
 The Language of a Computer
• Digital signals: sequences of 0s and 1s
• Machine language: language of a computer
• Binary digit (bit):
– The digit 0 or 1
• Binary code:
– A sequence of 0s and 1s
• Byte:
– A sequence of eight bits

9
The Language of a Computer (cont’d.)

10
 The Language of a Computer (cont'd.)

• ASCII (American Standard Code for

Information Interchange)
– 128 characters
– A is encoded as 1000001 (66th character)
– 3 is encoded as 0110011

11
 The Language of a Computer (cont'd.)

• EBCDIC
– Used by IBM
– 256 characters
• Unicode
– 65536 characters
– Two bytes are needed to store a character

12
The Evolution of Programming Languages
(cont'd.)

• Assembly language instructions are mnemonic

• Assembler: translates a program written in
assembly language into machine language

13
 The Evolution of Programming Languages
(cont'd.)
• Using assembly language instructions, wages
= rates • hours can be written as:

LOAD rate
MULT hour
STOR wages

14
 The Evolution of Programming Languages
(cont'd.)
• High-level languages include Basic, FORTRAN,
COBOL, Pascal, C, C++, C#, and Java
• Compiler: translates a program written in a
high-level language machine language
• The equation wages = rate • hours
can be written in C++ as:
wages = rate * hours;

15
 Processing a C++ Program
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
cout << "My first C++ program." << endl;
return 0;
}

Sample Run:
My first C++ program.

16
Processing a C++ Program (cont'd.)
• To execute a C++ program:
– Use an editor to create a source program in C++
– Preprocessor directives begin with # and are
processed by a the preprocessor
– Use the compiler to:
• Check that the program obeys the rules
• Translate into machine language (object program)

17
Processing a C++ Program (cont'd.)
• To execute a C++ program (cont'd.):
– Linker:
• Combines object program with other programs
provided by the SDK to create executable code
– Loader:
• Loads executable program into main memory
– The last step is to execute the program

18
Processing a C++ Program (cont'd.)

19
 Programming with the Problem Analysis–
Coding–Execution Cycle
• Programming is a process of problem solving
• One problem-solving technique:
– Analyze the problem
– Outline the problem requirements
– Design steps (algorithm) to solve the problem
• Algorithm:
– Step-by-step problem-solving process
– Solution achieved in finite amount of time
20
 The Problem Analysis–Coding–Execution
Cycle (cont’d.)
• Step 1: Analyze the problem
– Outline the problem and its requirements
– Design steps (algorithm) to solve the problem
• Step 2: Implement the algorithm
– Implement the algorithm in code
– Verify that the algorithm works
• Step 3: Maintenance
– Use and modify the program if the problem domain
changes
21
The Problem Analysis–Coding–Execution
Cycle (cont’d.)

22
 The Problem Analysis–Coding–Execution
Cycle (cont'd.)
• Thoroughly understand the problem
• Understand problem requirements
– Does program require user interaction?
– Does program manipulate data?
– What is the output?
• If the problem is complex, divide it into
subproblems
– Analyze each subproblem as above

23
 The Problem Analysis–Coding–Execution
Cycle (cont'd.)
• If problem was broken into subproblems
– Design algorithms for each subproblem
• Check the correctness of algorithm
– Can test using sample data
– Some mathematical analysis might be required

24
 The Problem Analysis–Coding–Execution
Cycle (cont'd.)
• Once the algorithm is designed and
correctness verified
– Write the equivalent code in high-level language
• Enter the program using text editor

25
 The Problem Analysis–Coding–Execution
Cycle (cont'd.)
• Run code through compiler
• If compiler generates errors
– Look at code and remove errors
– Run code again through compiler
• If there are no syntax errors
– Compiler generates equivalent machine code
• Linker links machine code with system
resources

26
 The Problem Analysis–Coding–Execution
Cycle (cont'd.)
• Once compiled and linked, loader can place
program into main memory for execution
• The final step is to execute the program
• Compiler guarantees that the program follows
the rules of the language
– Does not guarantee that the program will run
correctly

27
 Example 1-1
• Design an algorithm to find the perimeter and
area of a rectangle
• The perimeter and area of the rectangle are
given by the following formulas:

perimeter = 2 * (length +
width)
area = length * width
28
 Example 1-1 (cont'd.)
• Algorithm:
– Get length of the rectangle
– Get width of the rectangle
– Find the perimeter using the following equation:
perimeter = 2 * (length + width)
– Find the area using the following equation:
area = length * width

29
 Programming Methodologies

• Two popular approaches to programming

design
– Structured
– Object-oriented

30
 Structured Programming
• Structured design:
– Dividing a problem into smaller subproblems
• Structured programming:
– Implementing a structured design
• The structured design approach is also called:
– Top-down (or bottom-up) design
– Stepwise refinement
– Modular programming

31
 Object-Oriented Programming
• Identify components called objects
• Specify relevant data and possible operations
to be performed on that data
• Each object consists of data and operations on
that data
• An object combines data and operations on
the data into a single unit

32
Object-Oriented Programming (cont'd.)

• A programming language that implements

OOD is called an object-oriented programming
(OOP) language
• Learn how to represent data in computer
memory, how to manipulate data, and how to
implement operations
• Write algorithms and implement them in a
programming language

33
Object-Oriented Programming (cont'd.)

• Learn how to combine data and operations on

the data into a single unit called an object
• C++ was designed to implement OOD
• OOD is used with structured design

34
 ANSI/ISO Standard C++
• C++ evolved from C
• C++ designed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell
Laboratories in early 1980s
• C++ programs were not always portable from
one compiler to another
• In mid-1998, ANSI/ISO C++ language standards
were approved

35
 Summary
• Computer: electronic device that can perform
arithmetic and logical operations
• Computer system has hardware and software
• Central processing unit (CPU): brain
• Primary storage (MM) is volatile; secondary
storage (e.g., disk) is permanent
• Operating system monitors the overall activity of
the computer and provides services

36
 Summary (cont'd.)
• Various kinds of languages, such as machine
language, assembly, high-level
• Algorithm: step-by-step problem-solving process;
solution in finite amount of time
• Problem-solving process has three steps:
– Analyze problem and design an algorithm
– Implement the algorithm in code
– Maintain the program

37
 Summary (cont'd.)
• Structured design:
– Problem is divided into smaller subproblems
– Each subproblem is solved
– Combine solutions to all subproblems
• Object-oriented design (OOD): a program is a
collection of interacting objects
– Object: data and operations on those data

38
 Introduction
• Computer program
– Sequence of statements whose objective is to
accomplish a task
• Programming
– Process of planning and creating a program

39
 The Basics of a C++ Program
• Function: collection of statements; when
executed, accomplishes something
– May be predefined or standard
• Syntax: rules that specify which statements
(instructions) are legal
• Programming language: a set of rules, symbols,
and special words
• Semantic rule: meaning of the instruction
40
 Comments
• Comments are for the reader, not the compiler
• Two types:
– Single line
// This is a C++ program. It prints the sentence:
// Welcome to C++ Programming.

– Multiple line
/*
You can include comments that can
occupy several lines.
*/

41
 Special Symbols

• Special symbols

+ ?
- ,
* <=
/ !=
. ==
; >=

42
 Reserved Words (Keywords)
• Reserved words, keywords, or word symbols
– Include:
• int
• float
• double
• char
• const
• void
• return

43
 Identifiers
• Consist of letters, digits, and the underscore
character (_)
• Must begin with a letter or underscore
• C++ is case sensitive
– NUMBER is not the same as number
• Two predefined identifiers are cout and cin
• Unlike reserved words, predefined identifiers may
be redefined, but it is not a good idea

44
 Identifiers (cont'd.)
• Legal identifiers in C++:
– first
– conversion
– payRate

45
 Whitespaces
• Every C++ program contains whitespaces
– Include blanks, tabs, and newline characters
• Used to separate special symbols, reserved
words, and identifiers
• Proper utilization of whitespaces is important
– Can be used to make the program readable

46
 Data Types
• Data type: set of values together with a set of
operations
• C++ data types fall into three categories:

47
 Simple Data Types
• Three categories of simple data
– Integral: integers (numbers without a decimal)
– Floating-point: decimal numbers
– Enumeration type: user-defined data type

48
 Simple Data Types (cont'd.)

• Different compilers may allow different ranges

of values

49
 int Data Type
• Examples:
-6728
0
78
+763
• Positive integers do not need a + sign
• No commas are used within an integer
– Commas are used for separating items in a list

50
 bool Data Type
• bool type
– Two values: true and false
– Manipulate logical (Boolean) expressions
• true and false
– Logical values
• bool, true, and false
– Reserved words

51
 char Data Type
• The smallest integral data type
• Used for characters: letters, digits, and special
symbols
• Each character is enclosed in single quotes
– 'A', 'a', '0', '*', '+', '$', '&'
• A blank space is a character
– Written ' ', with a space left between the single
quotes

52
 Floating-Point Data Types
• C++ uses scientific notation to represent real
numbers (floating-point notation)

53
Floating-Point Data Types (cont'd.)
• float: represents any real number
– Range: -3.4E+38 to 3.4E+38 (four bytes)
• double: represents any real number
– Range: -1.7E+308 to 1.7E+308 (eight bytes)

54
Floating-Point Data Types (cont'd.)
• Maximum number of significant digits
(decimal places) for float values is 6 or 7
• Maximum number of significant digits for
double is 15
• Precision: maximum number of significant
digits
– Float values are called single precision
– Double values are called double precision

55
 Arithmetic Operators and Operator
Precedence
• C++ arithmetic operators:
– + addition
– - subtraction
– * multiplication
– / division
– % modulus operator
• +, -, *, and / can be used with integral and
floating-point data types
• Operators can be unary or binary
56
 Order of Precedence
• All operations inside of () are evaluated first
• *, /, and % are at the same level of
precedence and are evaluated next
• + and – have the same level of precedence
and are evaluated last
• When operators are on the same level
– Performed from left to right (associativity)
• 3 * 7 - 6 + 2 * 5 / 4 + 6 means

57
 Output
(((3 * 7) – 6) + ((2 * 5) / 4 )) + 6

58
 Expressions
• If all operands are integers
– Expression is called an integral expression
• Yields an integral result
• Example: 2 + 3 * 5
• If all operands are floating-point
– Expression is called a floating-point expression
• Yields a floating-point result
• Example: 12.8 * 17.5 - 34.50

59
 Mixed Expressions
• Mixed expression:
– Has operands of different data types
– Contains integers and floating-point
• Examples of mixed expressions:
2 + 3.5
6 / 4 + 3.9
5.4 * 2 – 13.6 + 18 / 2

60
 Mixed Expressions (cont'd.)
• Evaluation rules:
– If operator has same types of operands
• Evaluated according to the type of the operands
– If operator has both types of operands
• Integer is changed to floating-point
• Operator is evaluated
• Result is floating-point
– Entire expression is evaluated according to
precedence rules

61
 Input
• Data must be loaded into main memory
before it can be manipulated
• Storing data in memory is a two-step process:
– Instruct computer to allocate memory
– Include statements to put data into memory

62
 Allocating Memory with Constants and
Variables
• Named constant: memory location whose
content can’t change during execution
• The syntax to declare a named constant is:
• In C++, const is a reserved word

63
 Allocating Memory with Constants and
Variables (cont'd.)
• Variable: memory location whose content may
change during execution
• The syntax to declare a named constant is:

64
 Putting Data into Variables
• Ways to place data into a variable:
– Use C++’s assignment statement
– Use input (read) statements

65
 Assignment Statement
• The assignment statement takes the form:

• Expression is evaluated and its value is

assigned to the variable on the left side
• In C++, = is called the assignment operator

66
Assignment Statement (cont'd.)

67
Saving and Using the Value of an Expression

• To save the value of an expression:

– Declare a variable of the appropriate data type
– Assign the value of the expression to the variable
that was declared
• Use the assignment statement
• Wherever the value of the expression is
needed, use the variable holding the value

68
 Declaring & Initializing Variables
• Variables can be initialized when declared:
int first=13, second=10;
char ch=' ';
double x=12.6;
• All variables must be initialized before they are
used
– But not necessarily during declaration

69
 Input (Read) Statement
• cin is used with >> to gather input

• The stream extraction operator is >>

• For example, if miles is a double variable
cin >> miles;
– Causes computer to get a value of type double
– Places it in the variable miles

70
 Input (Read) Statement (cont'd.)
• Using more than one variable in cin allows
more than one value to be read at a time
• For example, if feet and inches are
variables of type int, a statement such as:
cin >> feet >> inches;
– Inputs two integers from the keyboard
– Places them in variables feet and inches
respectively

71
Input (Read) Statement (cont'd.)

72
 Variable Initialization
• There are two ways to initialize a variable:
int feet;
– By using the assignment statement
feet = 35;
– By using a read statement
cin >> feet;

73
 Increment and Decrement Operators
• Increment operator: increment variable by 1
– Pre-increment: ++variable
– Post-increment: variable++
• Decrement operator: decrement variable by 1
– Pre-decrement: --variable
– Post-decrement: variable—
• What is the difference between the following?
x = 5; x = 5;
y = ++x; y = x++;
74
 Output

• The syntax of cout and << is:

– Called an output statement

• The stream insertion operator is <<
• Expression evaluated and its value is
printed at the current cursor position on
the screen

75
 Output (cont'd.)
• A manipulator is used to format the output
– Example: endl causes insertion point to move to
beginning of next line

76
 Output (cont'd.)

• The new line character is '\n'

– May appear anywhere in the string
cout << "Hello there.";
cout << "My name is James.";
• Output:
Hello there.My name is James.
cout << "Hello there.\n";
cout << "My name is James.";
• Output :
Hello there.
My name is James.
77
Output (cont'd.)

78
 Preprocessor Directives
• C++ has a small number of operations
• Many functions and symbols needed to run a C++
program are provided as collection of libraries
• Every library has a name and is referred to by a
header file
• Preprocessor directives are commands supplied to
the preprocessor
• All preprocessor commands begin with #
• No semicolon at the end of these commands

79
 Preprocessor Directives (cont'd.)
• Syntax to include a header file:

• For example:

#include <iostream>

– Causes the preprocessor to include the header file

iostream in the program

80
namespace and Using cin and cout in a
Program
• cin and cout are declared in the header file
iostream, but within std namespace
• To use cin and cout in a program, use the
following two statements:
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

81
 Creating a C++ Program
• C++ program has two parts:
– Preprocessor directives
– The program
• Preprocessor directives and program
statements constitute C++ source code (.cpp)
• Compiler generates object code (.obj)
• Executable code is produced and saved in a
file with the file extension .exe

82
 Creating a C++ Program (cont'd.)
• A C++ program is a collection of functions, one of
which is the function main
• The first line of the function main is called the
heading of the function:
– int main()
• The statements enclosed between the curly braces
({ and }) form the body of the function
– Contains two types of statements:
• Declaration statements
• Executable statements

83
Debugging: Understanding and Fixing Syntax
Errors
• Compile a program
– Compiler will identify the syntax error
– Specifies the line numbers where the errors occur
Example2_Syntax_Errors.cpp
c:\chapter 2 source code\example2_syntax_errors.cpp(9) : error
C2146: syntax error :
missing ';' before identifier 'num'
c:\chapter 2 source code\example2_syntax_errors.cpp(11) :
error C2065: 'tempNum' :
undeclared identifier

• Learn how to spot and fix syntax errors

84
Use of Semicolons, Brackets, and Commas

• All C++ statements end with a semicolon

– Also called a statement terminator
• { and } are not C++ statements
• Commas separate items in a list

85
 Naming Identifiers
• Identifiers can be self-documenting:
– CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH
• Avoid run-together words :
– annualsale
– Solution:
• Capitalize the beginning of each new word:
annualSale
• Inserting an underscore just before a new word:
annual_sale

86
 More on Assignment Statements
• C++ has special assignment statements called
compound assignments
+=, -=, *=, /=, and %=
• Example:
x *= y;

87
 Programming Example: Convert
Length
• Write a program that takes as input a given length
expressed in feet and inches
– Convert and output the length in centimeters
• Input: length in feet and inches
• Output: equivalent length in centimeters
• Lengths are given in feet and inches
• Program computes the equivalent length in
centimeters
• One inch is equal to 2.54 centimeters
88
 Programming Example: Convert Length
(cont'd.)
• Convert the length in feet and inches to all
inches:
– Multiply the number of feet by 12
– Add given inches
• Use the conversion formula (1 inch = 2.54
centimeters) to find the equivalent length in
centimeters

89
 Programming Example: Convert Length
(cont'd.)
• The algorithm is as follows:
– Get the length in feet and inches
– Convert the length into total inches
– Convert total inches into centimeters
– Output centimeters

90
 Programming Example: Variables and
Constants
• Variables
int feet; //variable to hold given feet
int inches; //variable to hold given inches
int totalInches; //variable to hold total inches
double centimeters; //variable to hold length in
//centimeters

• Named Constant
const double CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH = 2.54;
const int INCHES_PER_FOOT = 12;

91
Programming Example: Main Algorithm

• Prompt user for input

• Get data
• Echo the input (output the input)
• Find length in inches
• Output length in inches
• Convert length to centimeters
• Output length in centimeters

92
Programming Example: Putting It Together

• Program begins with comments

• System resources will be used for I/O
• Use input statements to get data and output
statements to print results
• Data comes from keyboard and the output will
display on the screen
• The first statement of the program, after
comments, is preprocessor directive to include
header file iostream
93
 Programming Example: Putting It Together
(cont'd.)
• Two types of memory locations for data
manipulation:
– Named constants
• Usually put before main
– Variables
• This program has only one function (main),
which will contain all the code
• The program needs variables to manipulate
data, which are declared in main
94
Programming Example: Body of the Function

• The body of the function main has the

following form:
int main ()
{
declare variables
statements
return 0;
}
95
 Programming Example: Writing a Complete
Program
• Begin the program with comments for
documentation
• Include header files
• Declare named constants, if any
• Write the definition of the function main

96
Programming Example: Writing a Complete
Program (cont’d.)

97
Programming Example: Sample Run

Enter two integers, one for feet, one for inches: 15 7

The numbers you entered are 15 for feet and 7 for inches.
The total number of inches = 187
The number of centimeters = 474.98

98
 Summary
• C++ program: collection of functions where each
program has a function called main
• Identifier consists of letters, digits, and
underscores, and begins with letter or underscore
• The arithmetic operators in C++ are addition (+),
subtraction (-),multiplication (*), division (/), and
modulus (%)
• Arithmetic expressions are evaluated using the
precedence associativity rules
99
 Summary (cont'd.)
• All operands in an integral expression are integers
and all operands in a floating-point expression
are decimal numbers
• Mixed expression: contains both integers and
decimal numbers
• Use the cast operator to explicitly convert values
from one data type to another
• A named constant is initialized when declared
• All variables must be declared before used
100
 Summary (cont'd.)
• Use cin and stream extraction operator >>
to input from the standard input device
• Use cout and stream insertion operator <<
to output to the standard output device
• Preprocessor commands are processed before
the program goes through the compiler
• A file containing a C++ program usually ends
with the extension .cpp

101