Chapter 3

Fundamentals of metal forming process

Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing proces
ses in which plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal workpieces.
Deformation results from the use of a tool, usually called a die
in metal forming, which applies stresses that exceed the yield str
ength of the metal.
The metal therefore deforms to take a shape determined by the
geometry of the die.
Stresses applied to plastically deform the metal are usually co
mpressive.
However, some forming processes stretch the metal, while oth
ers bend the metal, and still others apply shear stresses to the me
tal.
1
 To be successfully formed, a metal must possess ce
rtain properties.
 Desirable properties include low yield strength and
high ductility and these properties are affected by te
mperature.
 Ductility is increased and yield strength is reduced
when work temperature is raised.
 The effect of temperature gives rise to distinctions
between cold working, warm working, and hot wor
king.
 Strain rate and friction are additional factors that aff
ect performance in metal forming.
2
 Overview of Metal Forming

Fig. Classification of metal forming operations 3

Bulk Deformation Processes
 Bulk deformation processes are generally characteri
zed by significant deformations and massive shape
changes, and the surface area-to-volume of the wor
k is relatively small.
 The term bulk describes the workparts that have thi
s low area to-volume ratio.
 Starting work shapes for these processes include cy
lindrical billets and rectangular bars. Next fig. illust
rates the basic operations in bulk deformation:

4
Fig. Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling, (b) forging, (c) extrusion, and (d) drawin
g. Relative motion in the operations is indicated by v; forces are indicated by F. 5
 Rolling: This is a compressive deformation process in
which the thickness of a slab or plate is reduced by two
opposing cylindrical tools called rolls. The rolls rotate so as
to draw the work into the gap between them and squeeze it.
 Forging: In forging, a workpiece is compressed between
two opposing dies, so that the die shapes are imparted to the
work.
 Forging is traditionally a hot working process, but many
types of forging are performed cold.
 Extrusion: This is a compression process in which the work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening, thereby
taking the shape of the opening as its own cross section.
 Drawing: In this forming process, the diameter of a round
wire or bar is reduced by pulling it through a die opening
6
 It is stretching process.
Sheet Metalworking
 Sheet metalworking processes are forming and cutting
operations performed on metal sheets, strips, and coils.
 The surface area-to-volume ratio of the starting metal is
high.
 Press working is the term often applied to sheet metal
operations because the machines used to perform these
operations are presses.
 Sheet metal operations are always performed as cold
working processes and are usually accomplished using a
set of tools called a punch and die.
 The punch is the positive portion and the die is the negative
portion of the tool set.
 The basic sheet metal operations are sketched in the next7
Fig. Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending, (b) drawing, and (c) shearing:
(1) as punch first contacts sheet, and (2) after cutting. Force and relative motion 8in
 Bending: Bending involves straining of a metal sheet or pl
ate to take an angle along a (usually) straight axis.
 Drawing: In sheet metalworking, drawing refers to the for
ming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave shape, s
uch as a cup, by stretching the metal.
 A blankholder is used to hold down the blank while the pu
nch pushes into the sheet metal and to distinguish this oper
ation from bar and wire drawing, the terms cup drawing or
deep drawing are often used.
 Shearing: This process seems somewhat out-of-place in a l
ist of deformation processes, because it involves cutting rat
her than forming. A shearing operation cuts the work using
a punch and die.

9
 Material Behavior In Metal Forming
 Mechanical properties that are important to a design engine
er differ from the manufacturing engineer.
 In design, mechanical properties are important in order to r
esist permanent deformation under applied stresses.
 Thus, the focus is on the elastic properties.
 In manufacturing, the goal is to apply stresses that exceed
the yield strength of the material so as to deform it to the re
quired shape.
 Thus, the focus is on the plastic properties.
 To be successfully formed, a metal must possess certain pr
operties such as low yield strength and high ductility, whic
h can be affected by temperature.
10
Fig.1: σ -e Diagram for Ductile Material
11
 Flow Stress
For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when deformed
due to strain hardening.
The stress required to continue deformation must be increased to match
this increase in strength
Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue deforming
the material to keep the metal ‘‘flowing”.

where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a function of strain,
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening exponent
Average flow stress:

where = average flow stress; and ε = maximum strain during deformation

process

12
• The average flow stress (also called the mean flow
stress) is the average value of stress over the stress–
strain curve from the beginning of strain to the final
(maximum) value that occurs during deformation.

Average flow stress

in relation to
Flow stress Yf
Yield strength Y

13
 Temperature In Metal Forming
a) Cold Working : Cold working is metal forming p
erformed at room temperature or slightly above.
Significant advantages of cold forming compared to h
ot working are:
 greater accuracy
 better surface finish;
 higher strength and hardness
 desirable directional properties to be obtained in t
he product;
- Cold working is mass-production operations.
Certain limitations associated with cold working:
 higher forces and power are required
 ductility of the work metal limit the amount of for
14
ming that can be done to the part.
b) Warm Working
 Performed at temperatures above room temperature
but below recrystallization temperature.
 Dividing line between cold working and warm wor
king often expressed in terms of melting point: 0.3
Tm,
where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for
metal.
 The lower strength and strain hardening at the inter
mediate temperatures, as well as higher ductility, pr
ovide warm working with the following advantages
over cold working:
 lower forces and power,
 more intricate work geometries possible, and 15
c) Hot Working:
Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallizat
ion temperature.
Recrystallization temperature = ½ of melting point o
n absolute scale
In practice, hot working usually performed somewh
at above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to be soften as temperature increase
s above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
Capability for substantial plastic deformation ‑ far m
ore than possible with cold or warm working
16
Advantages of hot working relative to cold working:
 the shape of the workpart can be significantly altered,
 lower forces and power are required to deform the metal,
 metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot for
med
 strength properties are generally isotropic because of the ab
sence of the oriented grain structure typically created in col
d working,
Disadvantages of hot working include:
 lower dimensional accuracy,
 higher total energy required to heat the workpiece),
 work surface oxidation (scale),
 poorer surface finish, and
 shorter tool life.
17
 Strain Rate
The rate at which the metal is strained in a forming process is
directly related to the speed of deformation, v. Given the defor
mation speed, strain rate is defined:

where ϵ = true strain rate, 1/s; and h = instantaneous height of t

he workpiece being deformed, m.
Strain Rate Sensitivity
Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves like a
perfectly plastic material, with strain hardening exponent n = 0.
The metal should continue to flow at the same flow stress,
once that stress is reached
However, an additional phenomenon occurs during
deformation, especially at elevated temperatures:
 Strain rate sensitivity
18
 Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress
At hot working temperatures, flow stress also depends on
strain rate
As strain rate increases, resistance to deformation
increases
 This is the effect known as strain‑rate sensitivity

19
 Friction And Lubrication In Metal Forming
 Friction in metal forming arises because of the close
contact between the tool and work surfaces and the
high pressures that drive the surfaces together in the
se operations.
 High friction results in, a condition known as sticki
ng in metalworking which is the tendency for the tw
o surfaces in relative motion to adhere to each other
rather than slide.
 Metalworking lubricants are applied to the tool–wor
k interface in many forming operations to reduce the
harmful effects of friction.
20
 Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment
 Forming generally indicates changing the shape of
an existing solid body.
For example, the metal body for an automobile
 Shaping processes typically involve the molding an
d casting of soft or molten materials, and the finishe
d product is usually at or near the final desired shap
e and it may require little or no further finishing.

21
 Some of the forming and shaping operations produ
ce long continuous products, such as plates, sheets
, tubing, wire, and bars with various cross sections.
Rolling, extrusion, and drawing processes are capa
ble of making such products, which then are cut in
to desired lengths.
 Processes such as forging, sheet metal forming and
stamping typically produce discrete products
 Cast structures are converted to wrought structures
by plastic deformation processes.
 The raw material used also may consist of metal p
owders, which then are pressed and sintered into in
dividual products. 22
 Metal Rolling Processes and Equipment
Introduction
 Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or
changing the cross section of a long workpiece by
compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.
 This process is similar to rolling dough with a rolli
ng pin to reduce its thickness.
 Modern steel making practices and the production
of various ferrous, nonferrous metals and alloys no
w generally involve combining continuous casting
with rolling processes which greatly improves pro
ductivity and lowers production costs.

23
Common rolling application in steelmaking
The cast steel ingot is soaked, around 1200 0C .
It is rolled into one of three intermediate shapes:
1) Blooms - into structural shapes and rails.
2) Billets - into bars and rods
3) Slabs - into plates, sheets, and strips.

24
FIG. Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill. 25
 The Flat-rolling Process
 It involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets, and plates (w
orkparts of rectangular cross section in which the width is
greater than the thickness).
 the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its thicknes
s is reduced by an amount called the draft.
 draft is the difference between initial and final strip thick
nesses

 The higher the friction, the larger the roll radius, the greate
r the maximum possible draft becomes
 As surface speed of rigid roll is constant, there is relative s
liding between the roll and the strip along the arc of conta
ct arc in the roll gap, L
 At neutral point or no-slip point, velocity of strip is the s
ame as that of the roll 26
 The rolls contact the work along an arc defined by
the angle 𝜽.
 Each roll has radius R and its rotational speed gives
it a surface velocity vr.
 This velocity is greater than the entering speed of
the work, vo and less than its exiting speed v
 Since the metal flow is continuous, there is a
gradual change in velocity of the work between the
rolls.
 However, there is one point along the arc where
work velocity equals roll velocity.
 At neutral point or no-slip point, velocity of strip
is the same as that of the roll

27
28
29
 Reducing Roll Force

 Roll forces cause deflection and flattening of roll

s
 Roll stand columns may deflect under high force
Roll forces can be reduced by:
 Reducing friction at the roll–workpiece interfa
ce
 Using smaller diameter rolls
 Reduce the contact area
 Rolling at elevated temperatures
 Applying front and/or back tensions to the stri
p
30
 Geometric Considerations
 Because of the forces acting on them, rolls undergo
changes in shape during rolling.
 Roll forces tend to bend the rolls elastically during rolling
 As expected, the higher the elastic modulus of the roll
material, the smaller the roll deflection.
 As a result of roll bending, the rolled strip tends to be
thicker at its center than at its edges (crown).
 The usual method of avoiding this problem is to grind the
rolls in such a way that their diameter at the center is
slightly larger than at their edges (camber).
 Thus, when the roll bends, the strip being rolled now has
a constant thickness along its width.
31
 Fig. (a) Bending of straight cylindrical rolls caused by roll forces.
(b) Bending of rolls ground with camber, producing a strip with uniform
thickness through the strip width. Deflections have been exaggerated
for clarity. 32
Spreading
 In rolling plates and sheets with high width-to-thickness
ratios, the width of the strip remains effectively constant
during rolling.
 However, with smaller ratios such as a strip with a square
cross section), its width increases significantly as it passes
through the rolls.
 This increase in width is called spreading. In the
calculation of the roll force, the width is taken as an
average width.

Fig. Spreading in flat rolling. 33

 Flat-rolling Practice
 The initial rolling steps (breaking down) of the material is
done by hot rolling (above the recrystallization
temperature of the metal).
 A cast structure typically is dendritic, and it includes
coarse and non uniform grains; this structure usually is
brittle and may be porous.
 Hot rolling converts the cast structure to a wrought
structure finer grains and enhanced ductility, both of
which result from the breaking up of brittle grain
boundaries and the closing up of internal defects
(especially porosity)

34
Fig. Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain Wrought
metals during hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce
grain size in metals for improved strength and ductility. Cast
structures of ingots or continuous castings are converted to a
wrought structure by hot working
35
 Defects in Rolled Plates and Sheets
 Defects may be present on the surfaces of rolled plates
and sheets, or there may be internal structural defects.
 Defects are undesirable not only because they
compromise surface appearance, but also because they
may adversely affect strength, formability, and other
manufacturing characteristics.
 Several surface defects (such as scale, rust, scratches,
gouges, pits, and cracks) have been identified in sheet
metals.
 These defects may be caused by inclusions and impurities
in the original cast material or by various other conditions
related to material preparation and to the rolling
operation.
36
 …..cont’d
Wavy edges on sheets are the result of roll bending. The
strip is thinner along its edges than at its center; thus, the
edges elongate more than the center. Consequently, the
edges buckle because they are constrained by the central
region from expanding freely in the longitudinal (rolling)
direction.
Cracks are usually the result of poor material ductility at
the rolling temperature.
Alligatoring is a complex phenomenon and typically is
caused be non uniform bulk deformation of the billet
original cast material during rolling or by the presence of
defect
37
Fig. Schematic illustration of typical defects in flat rolling: (a) wavy
edges; (b) zipper cracks in the center of the strip; (c) edge cracks; and
(d) alligatoring.
38
 Shape Rolling
 Work is deformed into a contoured cross-section rather than flat.
 Accomplished by passing work through rolls that have the reverse of desired
shape.
 Straight and long structural shapes (such as channels, I-beams, railroad rails, and
solid bars) are formed at elevated temperatures by shape rolling (profile rolling),
in which the stock goes through a set of specially designed rolls.

39
 Various Rolling Processes and Mills
1. Skew Rolling: A process similar to roll forging is skew
rolling, typically used for making ball bearing.
2. Ring Rolling: In ring rolling, a thick ring is expanded into
a large-diameter thinner one. The ring is placed between two
rolls, one of which is driven while the other is idle

• b)
Fig. a) skew rolling and b) ring rolling 40
3. Thread Rolling
 Is a cold-forming process by which straight or tapered
threads are formed on round rods or wire with high and
competitive production rate

41
4. Roll Piercing
Hot working process
Production of Seamless thick-wall tubes

FIG. Roll piercing: (a) formation of internal stresses and cavity by

compression of cylindrical part; and (b) setup of Mannesmann
roll mill for producing seamless tubing.
42
 Rolling Mills
a) Two-high rolling mill: The basic rolling mill consists of
two opposing rolls.
b)Three-high rolling mill: There are three rolls in a
vertical column, and the direction of rotation of each roll
remains unchanged. To achieve a series of reductions, the
work can be passed through from either side by raising or
lowering the strip after each pass.
c) Four-high rolling mill: uses two smaller-diameter rolls
to contact the work and two backing rolls behind them.
d) Cluster rolling mill: allows smaller working rolls against
the work.
e) Tandem rolling mill: Consists of a series of rolling stands to
achieve higher throughput rates in standard products. 43
Rolling Mill Configurations
Various rolling mill configurations are available to deal with the
variety of applications and technical problems in the rolling process.

a) two high b) three high c) four high

d) cluster mill e) tandem rolling mill 44
 Forging Process
Deformation process in which work is compressed between
two dies.
Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears,
aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts, etc.
Classification of Forging Operations
Cold vs. hot forging
Cold forging: advantage is increased strength that results from strain
hardening.
Hot or warm forging: most common, due to the significant deformation
and the need to reduce strength and increase ductility of work metal.
Impact vs. press forging
Forge hammer: applies an impact load
Forge press: applies gradual pressure
45
 Types of Forging Dies
1.Open-die forging
work is compressed between two flat dies,
allowing metal to flow laterally without constraint.
workpart with cylindrical cross-section
Similar to compression test
Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work
 Common names include upsetting or upset
forging

46
 Open-Die Forging with No Friction
If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces, then
homogeneous deformation occurs, so that radial flow is
uniform throughout workpart height and true strain is given
by:

where ho = starting height; and h = height at some point during

compression. At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum value.
The force required to continue the compression at any given
height h during the process can be obtained by multiplying
the corresponding cross-sectional area by the flow stress:

where F = force, N; A = cross-sectional area of the part, mm2 ; and

Yf = flow stress corresponding to the strain, Mpa.
47
Fig. Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under ideal
conditions in an open-die forging operation: (1) start of process with
workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2) partial compression,
and (3) final size
48
49
Fig. Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in
open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling: (1)
start of process, (2) partial deformation, and (3) final
shape
50
Operations in open-die forging include:
1. Fullering: Reducing WP cross section to prepare for subsequent
shaping action. Dies with convex surface cavity are used.
2. Edging: Similar to Fullering, but dies have concave surface cavity.
3. Cogging: Open dies with flat or slightly contoured surfaces to reduce
cross-section and to increase length.

Fig. Several open-die forging operations: (a) fullering, (b) edging, and (c)
cogging 51
 Impression-Die Forging
Die surfaces contain a cavity or impression that is
imparted to workpart.
Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of
desired part shape
Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die
cavity into small gap between die plates
Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it serves
an important function during compression:
As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow into gap,
constraining material to fill die cavity
In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by cooling
against die plates 52
 Fig. Sequence in impression-die forging:
(1) just prior to initial contact with raw workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die
plates
53
 Impression-Die Forging
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:
Higher production rates
Conservation of metal (less waste)
Greater strength
Favorable grain orientation in the metal
Limitations:
Not capable of close tolerances
Machining often required to achieve accuracies and
features needed, such as holes, threads, and mating surfaces
that fit with other components
54
 Flashless Forging
Compression of work in punch and die tooling
whose cavity does allow for flash
Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity
volume within very close tolerance
 Process control more demanding than impression-
die forging
Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
Often classified as a precision forging process

55
Fig: Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with workpiece,
(2) partial compression, and (3) final punch and die closure
Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)
Apply an impact load against workpart. two types:
Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from falling weight of
a heavy ram
 Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air or
steam 56
Fig: Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for
impression-die forging 57
 Forging Presses
Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression operation. Types:
 Mechanical presses - converts rotation of drive motor into linear
motion of ram
 Hydraulic presses - hydraulic piston actuates ram
 Screw presses - screw mechanism drives ram

c)

Fig. a) hydraulic press, b) mechanical press and c) screw press 58

 Other Deformation Processes Related To Forging
1.Upsetting and Heading: is used to form heads of screw
and bolt with different geometric forms using closed-die
forging.
2.Swaging and Radial Forging: are forging processes used
to reduce the diameter of a tube or solid rod.
3.Roll Forging - used to reduce cross section of a
cylindrical (or rectangular) workpiece by passing it through
rolls that have grooves matching the desired shape.

59
 Extrusion Process
Extrusion is a compression process in which the
work metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a
toothpaste tube
Extrusion is performed as either a continuous
process or a discrete processes.
Two basic types of extrusion:
Direct extrusion
Indirect extrusion

60
Direct (forward) Extrusion
A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram compresses the
material, forcing it to flow through one or more openings in a die at the
opposite end of the container.
As the ram approaches the die, a small portion of the billet remains that
cannot be forced through the die opening.
This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from the product by
cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.

Fig. Direct extrusion. 61

Indirect (Backward Or Reverse) Extrusion
The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the
container.
As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow
through the clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram.

Fig. Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section and (b) a
hollow cross section.
62
 Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
Hot extrusion
prior heating of billet to above its recrystallization
temperature
This reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal,
permitting more size reductions and more complex shapes.
Cold extrusion
generally used to produce discrete parts
The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed
cold extrusion

63
64
 Under the assumption of ideal deformation (no friction and
no redundant work), the pressure applied by the ram to
compress the billet through the die opening can be computed
as follows:

Where Yf average flow stress during deformation, in Mpa

However, due to the existence of friction the actual pressure is

greater than the above.
Estimated extrusion strain will be:
where extrusion strain; and a and b are empirical constants for a given
die angle. Typical values of these constants are: a = 0.8 and b = 1.2 to
1.5. Values of a and b tend to increase with increasing die angle.
65
The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion can be
estimated based on Johnson’s extrusion strain formula as
follows:

Where is calculated based on ideal strain, rather than extrusion

strain.
Based on this reasoning, the following formula can be used
to compute ram pressure in direct extrusion:

66
 Extrusion Dies
Important factors in an extrusion die are die angle and orifice shape.

Fig. (a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion;

(b) effect of die angle on ram force
67
Die Angle
Low die angle - surface area is large, leading to increased friction at
die-billet interface
Higher friction results in larger ram force
Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow during reduction
Turbulence increases ram force required
Optimum angle depends on work material, billet temperature, and
lubrication
Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die
Simplest cross section shape = circular die orifice
Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
As cross-section becomes more complex, higher pressure and
greater force are required

68
 Other Extrusion Processes
1.Impact Extrusion: performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes
than conventional extrusion.

Fig. Several examples of impact extrusion: (a) forward, (b) backward, and (c)
69
combination of forward and backward.
2. Hydrostatic Extrusion: friction along the billet-container interface
can be addressed by surrounding the billet with fluid inside the
container and pressurizing the fluid by the forward motion of the ram.
Hydrostatic pressure on the work increases the material’s ductility.
The billet must be formed with a taper at one end to fit snugly into the
die entry angle. This establishes a seal to prevent fluid from squirting
out the die hole when the container is initially pressurized.

Fig. Hydrostatic extrusion 70

 Sheet Metal Forming
•Sheet metalworking includes cutting and forming
performed on relatively thin sheets (0.4mm - 6mm).
•The common material is low carbon steel (0.06%–
0.15%C) due to its low cost, formability and strength in
many applications (automobile and truck bodies, airplanes,
locomotives, appliances, furniture, …. )
•Most operations are done on press in cold state.

Major Sheet Metal Forming process categories:

– Cutting,
– Bending, and
– Drawing
71
Cutting Operations
•Cutting involves a shearing action between punch and a stationary
die through plastic deformation, penetration and fracture.

FIG - Shearing between two cutting edges: (1) just before punch
contacts work; (2) punch push into work, deformation; (3) punch
penetrates; and (4) fracture, separate the sheet. 72
 Major Sheet Metal Cutting
1.Shearing - is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a
straight line between two cutting edges
2.Punching - Making holes (internal part as slug).
– More complex shapes than simple shearing
3.Blanking - Cutting with closed contour (retain internal
part)

FIG - (a) Blanking and (b) punching.

Engineering Analysis of Sheet-metal Cutting
Parameters፡
Clearance (c)፡ c = Act
Ac =clearance allowance; 4-8% of (t), and 1% in shaving and fine blanking
Small holes - larger clearances
Thickness (t),
Metal type and strength,
Cut length.

FIG- Effect of clearance:

(a) too small c, excessive
forces; and (b) too large c
causes oversized burr. 74
Clearance values determine the punch and die sizes

0.25 to 1.5

Blanking:
Blanking punch dia. = Db- 2c
Blanking die dia. = Db

FIG - Die size determines blank size Db;

Punch
punch size determines hole size Dh.; Hole punch dia. = Dh
c = clearance. Hole die dia. = Dh+ 2c
75
 Processing Factors in Shearing Die Design
• Punch shape
– Bevel,
• Reduces shear forces and noise
– Double bevel
• Reduces lateral forces of bevel shear
– Convex shear
Cutting Forces (F)
F = StL S = Shear strength of sheet-metal
t = Sheet-metal thickness
L = Length of cutting edge
•If shear strength is unknown, cutting force can be
estimated from tensile strength (TS):
F = 0.7(TS)tL
TS = Ultimate tensile strength of sheet-metal
•In blanking, punching, slotting, and similar operations, L
is perimeter of blank or hole. Neglect clearance effect.

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Other Sheet-Metal-Cutting Operations
Cutoff and Parting
Cutoff - blanks are separated from a strip by cutting the opposite
sides of the part in sequence.
(1) the cut edges are not necessarily straight, and
(2) the blanks can be nested on the strip to avoid scrap.
Parting - cutting a strip by a punch with two cutting edges that
match the opposite sides of the blank.

FIG - (a) Cutoff and (b) parting

78
Sheet-metal Cutting Operations …
Slotting, Perforating, and Notching
•Slotting - cuts out an elongated or rectangular hole.
•Perforating - simultaneous punching of a pattern of holes for
decorative purposes, or passage of light, gas, or fluid.
•Notching - cutting out a portion from the side.
•Semi-notching removes portion from the interior sheet.
– both are to obtain the desired outline of a blank.

FIG- (a) Slotting, (b) perforating, (c) notching and seminotching. 79

 Other Sheet-metal Cutting Operations …
Trimming, Shaving, and Fine Blanking
•Trimming - cutting on a formed part to remove excess metal and
establish size ( i.e upper portion of a deep drawn cup)
•Shaving - shearing with very small clearance to obtain accurate
dimensions and cut edges as a secondary operation
•Fine blanking - shearing to blank parts with close tolerances
and smooth, straight edges in one step,.

80
FIG - (a) Shaving and (b) fine blanking;
 Other Methods of Cutting Sheet Metal
• Band saw
– Very versatile but not very precise
– Used a lot in job shops
• Flame cutting
– Used mostly on thick steel sheet
– Can cut quite complex shapes but is not precise
– Leaves a very rough edge and often a heat affected zone
• Laser-beam cutting
– Very popular since it can be readily programmed to cut
complex shapes
– Leaves a fine heat affected zone (much smaller than flame
cutting)
 Other Methods of Cutting Sheet Metal
• Friction sawing
– Cut-off saw
– Uses abrasive disk
– Versatile but inaccurate
• Water jet
– Uses high pressure jet of water to cut
– Leaves nice finished edge
– Limited in materials that can be cut
• Abrasive water jet
– Like water jet but with abrasives contained in jet
– Cuts anything
– Leaves nice edge and is precise
– Programmable and can cut almost any shape
Bending Operations
•Bending is straining of metal around straight axis in tension and
compression; little or no change in thickness
Bending methods are:
•V-bending - metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die
with angles ranging from obtuse to acute, in low-production.
•Edge bending involves cantilever sheet loading held with pad,
while punch forces part to yield over edge, <= 90o.

FIG -Two common bending methods: (a) V-bending and (b)

edge bending; (1) before and (2) after bending. 83
 Engineering Analysis of Bending
•The thickness (t) is bent through bend angle α with
included angle α’, where α + α’=180o.
•Bend radius R is from inside, determined by tooling, and
made over wp (w width).
Bend Allowance (Ab) - If Ab is small relative to t, metal
stretches. To account for stretching on neutral axis;

where Kba is stretch factor, if R<2t, Kba = 0.33; and if R>= 2t, Kba =
0.50. Kba predicts that stretching occurs if bend radius is small
relative to thickness.
Springback. Elastic recovery after bending that increase bend
radius, bend angle could be less than original angle (-ve springback)

FIG - Springback shows a decrease in bend angle and increase in radius: (1) during the
operation, radius Rt with angle α’ t = determined by bending tool (punch); (2) after punch
removal, work springs back to R and angle α’.
Methods of reducing
springback in bending
•Over bending
•Temperature
•Stretch bending
85
Bending Analysis

where SB = springback; 𝞪’= included angle of the sheet-metal part,

and 𝞪’t included angle of the bending tool.

w = width of sheet-metal
Bending force D = die opening dimension
Kbf = 1.33 V-bending
Kbf = 0.33 edge bending

FIG - (a) Bending; (b) both compression and tensile elongation in bending. 86
Other Bending and Forming Operations
Some operations involve bending over a curved axis:
•Flanging - edge is bent at a 900 angle (usual) to form a
rim or flange, to strengthen or stiffen. It can be over
straight bend axis, or involve stretching or shrinking.

87
 Other Bending and Forming Operations
• Hemming - bending the edge over itself to eliminate
sharp edge, improve stiffness and appearance.
• Seaming - two sheet-metal edges are assembled.
• Curling/ beading, forms the edges into a roll or curl for
safety, strength, and aesthetics like hinges, pots and
pans, and pocket-watch cases.

Hemming Seaming Curling

88
 Miscellaneous Bending Operations

Channel bending U-bending air-bending

Offset-bending Corrugating Tube forming

FIG- Miscellaneous bending operations

89
 Drawing
•Drawing is a sheet-metal-forming operation used to make
cup-shaped, box-shaped, or other complex-curved and
concave parts.
•A piece is placed over a die cavity and then pushed it
into the opening with a punch.
•The blank is held down flat against die by blank-holder.
•Common parts made by drawing include: beverage cans,
ammunition shells, sinks, cooking pots, and automobile
body panels.

90
 Engineering analysis of Drawing

c = Clearance (c = 1.1 t)
Db = blank diameter
Dp = Punch diameter
Rd = die corner radius
Rp = Punch corner radius
F = drawing force
Fh = holding force

Fig. Drawing of a cup-shaped part: end of stroke; starting blank and

91
drawn part.
Engineering Drawing Analysis
Measures of Drawing
1. Severity of deep drawing operation (drawing ratio DR);

The greater the ratio, the more severe DR  2. It depends on Rp and Rd,
friction, draw depth, metal (ductility, directionality).
2. Reduction r,  0.5

3. Thickness-to-diameter ratio (%),  1%

4. Drawing force, , max. at 1/3 stroke.

5. Holding pressure
–Too small holding force - wrinkling
–Too large - prevents flow, stretching and tearing.
92
 OTHER DRAWING OPERATIONS
•Redrawing - too severe shape change (high drawing ratio), more
than one step is required (redrawing)
– First, maximum reduction is 40 - 45%; 2nd (1st redraw),
reduction is 30%; and 3rd draw, reduction should be 16%.
•Reverse drawing - part positioned face down so that 2nd drawing
produces the configuration with a more severe deformation than
redrawing, it is actually easier as bent in outside and inside die
corners for less strain hardening.
FIG -Reverse drawing: (1) start, (2)
completion

93
FIG - Redrawing of a cup: (1) start of redraw, and (2) end of stroke.
Drawing Defects
a)Wrinkling in flange - small holding force
If t=Db, drawing is possible without a blankholder as there
is no tendency for wrinkling .
b) Wrinkling in the wall - insufficient holding force, wrinkling
initially occurring on the flange.
c) Tearing - high stress, sharp die radius
d) Earing - anisotropy of the material
e) Surface scratches – non smooth Die/ punch surface, less
lubrication

94
 Dies and Presses for Sheet-metal Processes
Dies
•Punch-and-die tooling is custom-designed for a part.
Components of Stamping Die
•Punch attached to the ram and die set attached to shoe on base)
with guide pins and bushings for alignment.
•Ram actuation accomplishes press working operation.
•Die also include stripper to prevent sticking and stop in strips.

Die Set

Fig - Components of a punch and die for

blanking operation 95
 Dies (types) …
A simple die like V-dies- performs a single blanking
operation with each stroke.
Compound dies - performs two operations at a single station,
such as blanking and punching, or blanking and drawing like
in washer
Combination die -performs two operations at two different
stations, i.e blanking two different parts (e.g., right-and left-
hand), or blanking and then bending same part.
Progressive die - performs two or more operations at two or
more stations with each press stroke progressively.
The coil is fed From one station to the next and different
operations (e.g., punching, notching, bending, and blanking)
are performed at each station.
96
Fig. (a) Progressive die and (b) associated strip development.
97
 Presses
•A press is a machine tool with a stationary bed and a
powered ram (or slide) that can be driven toward and
away from the bed to perform various cutting and forming
operations.
•Ram is driven by mechanical or hydraulic power and its
relative positions with bed is established by frame.
•Capacities:
– Force and energy based on physical size and power system
and Production rate,
– Power systems (mechanical or hydraulic drive transmit
power), and
– Frame types (1) C-frame and (2) Straight-sided

98
 Presses (Construction- Gap Frame) …
1.Gap Frame Presses has C-frame configuration for access the die for
feeding, with back opening for ejection stampings/ scrap.
Types of gap frame press
1.Solid gap frame, has one-piece rigid construction with C-shape and
up to 9000 kN capacities.
2.Adjustable bed, accommodate various die sizes.
3.Openback inclinable, C-frame, tilts to let parts fall by gravity
4.Press brake, has wide bed that allows to set up separate dies
5.Turret press - suited to sequence of punching, notching, and related
operations with many punches and die turret

C-frame mechanical press

99
 Presses (Construction- Straight-sided) …
2. Straight-sided Frame - For high tonnage and greater
structural rigidity
Have full sides, giving it a box-like appearance that
increases the strength and stiffness.
Size –
•In all presses, size is correlated to tonnage capacity.
– Larger presses are built to withstand higher forces.
– Press size is also related to the speed of operation.
– Smaller presses are capable of higher production rates.

Straight sided mechanical press

100
Power and Drive Systems
Power systems are either hydraulic or mechanical.
1. Hydraulic presses - large piston and cylinder drive the
ram and typically provides longer ram strokes to develop
the full tonnage force throughout the entire stroke.
– it is slower and limited to deep drawing and other forming
operations where these load-stroke characteristics are
advantageous.
– Double-action presses are useful in deep drawing

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2. Mechanical presses - drive mechanisms like
eccentric, crankshaft, and knuckle joint convert drive
motor rotational motion into linear ram motion.
•A flywheel is used to store the energy for use in stamping
•Very high forces at the bottom of strokes, and are suited to
blanking and punching.
•The knuckle joint that delivers very high force used in coining.

crankshaft Knuckle joint

eccentric

102