Operating

Systems:
Internals Chapter 1
and Design
Principles Computer System
Overview
Seventh Edition
By William Stallings
 Operating Systems:
Internals and Design Principles

“No artifact designed by man is so convenient for this kind of functional

description as a digital computer. Almost the only ones of its properties that
are detectable in its behavior are the organizational properties. Almost no
interesting statement that one can make about on operating computer bears any
particular relation to the specific nature of the hardware. A computer is an
organization of elementary functional components in which, to a high
approximation, only the function performed by those components is relevant
to the behavior of the whole system.”

THE SCIENCES OF THE ARTIFICIAL ,

Herbert Simon
 Operating System
 Exploits
the hardware resources of one or more
processors
 Provides a set of services to system users
 Manages secondary memory and I/O devices
 Basic Elements

Processor Main Memory I/O Modules System Bus

 Processor
Controls the Performs the
operation of the data processing
computer functions

Referred to as the
Central Processing
Unit (CPU)
 Main Memory
Volatile

Contents of the memory is lost

when the computer is shut
down
Referredto as real memory or
primary memory
 I/O Modules

Moves data between the computer and external

environments such as:

storage (e.g. communicatio

hard drive) ns equipment terminals
 System Bus

Providesfor communication
among processors, main
memory, and I/O modules
Top-Level
View
 Microprocessor
Inventionthat brought about desktop and
handheld computing
Processor on a single chip
Fastest general purpose processor
Multiprocessors

Each chip (socket) contains multiple processors

(cores)
 Graphical Processing
Units (GPU’s)
 Provide efficient computation on arrays of
data using Single-Instruction Multiple Data
(SIMD) techniques
 Used for general numerical processing
 Physics simulations for games
 Computations on large spreadsheets

G P U
 Digital Signal Processors
(DSPs)
 Deal with streaming signals such as audio
or video
 Used to be embedded in devices like
modems
 Encoding/decoding speech and video
(codecs)
 Support for encryption and security

D S P
 System on a Chip
(SoC)
 To satisfy the requirements of handheld
devices, the microprocessor is giving way
to the SoC
 Componentssuch as DSPs, GPUs, codecs
and main memory, in addition to the
CPUs and caches, are on the same
chip
 Instruction Execution
 A program consists of a set of instructions
stored in memory

Two steps:

●
processor reads (fetches) instructions from memory
●
processor executes each instruction
Basic Instruction Cycle
 Instruction Fetch
and Execute

 The
processor fetches the instruction from
memory
 Program counter (PC) holds address of the
instruction to be fetched next
 PC is incremented after each fetch
 Instruction Register (IR)

Fetched instruction is
 Processor interprets the
loaded into Instruction instruction and performs
Register (IR) required action:
 Processor-memory
 Processor-I/O
 Data processing
 Control
 Characteristics of a
Hypothetical Machine
Example of
Program
Execution
 Interrupts
 Interrupt the normal sequencing of the processor
 Provided to improve processor utilization
 most I/O devices are slower than the processor
 processor must pause to wait for device
 wasteful use of the processor
Common Classes
of Interrupts
Flow of Control
Without Interrupts
Interrupts:
Short I/O Wait
Transfer of Control via Interrupts
Instruction Cycle With Interrupts
Program Timing:
Short I/O Wait
Program Timing:
Long I/O wait
Simple
Interrupt
Processing
Changes
for an
Interrupt
 Multiple Interrupts

An interrupt occurs
while another interrupt
Two
is being processed approaches:
e.g. receiving data from
● ●
disable interrupts while
a communications line an interrupt is being
and printing results at processed
the same time ●
use a priority scheme
Transfer of Control With
Multiple Interrupts:

Sequential
Transfer of Control With
Multiple Interrupts:

Nested
Example Time Sequence
of Multiple Interrupts
 Memory Hierarchy

 Major constraints in memory

 amount
 speed
 expense

 Memory must be able to keep up with the processor

 Cost of memory must be reasonable in relationship to
the other components
Memory Relationships

Faster access time = greater cost per bit

 The Memory Hierarchy
 Going down the
hierarchy:
 decreasing cost per bit
 increasing capacity
 increasing access time
 decreasing frequency of
access to the memory by
the processor
Performance of a Simple
Two-Level Memory

Figure 1.15 Performance of a Simple Two-Level Memory

 Principle of Locality
 Memory references by the processor tend to
cluster
 Datais organized so that the percentage of
accesses to each successively lower level is
substantially less than that of the level above
 Can
be applied across more than two levels of
memory
 Also referred to
as auxiliary
memory
External
Secondary Memory Nonvolatile
Used to store
program
and data
files
 Cache Memory
 Invisible to the OS
 Interacts with other memory management hardware
 Processor must access memory at least once per instruction cycle
 Processor execution is limited by memory cycle time
 Exploit the principle of locality with a small, fast memory
 Cache Principles

 Contains a copy of a portion of main memory

 Processor first checks cache
 If not found, a block of memory is read into cache
 Because of locality of reference, it is likely that many of the
future memory references will be to other bytes in the block
Cache and
Main
Memory
Cache/Main-Memory Structure
Cache Read
Operation
 Main
categorie
s are:
number

Cache of cache
levels

Design
write cache
policy size

replacem
block
ent
algorithm size
mapping
function
 Cache and Block Size

Cache Size

Small caches have significant

impact on performance
 Mapping Function
∗ Determines which cache
location the block will occupy
Two constraints affect design:

When one block is read The more flexible the mapping

function, the more complex is the
in, another may have to circuitry required to search the
be replaced cache
 Replacement Algorithm
 Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm
 effective strategy is to replace a block that has been in
the cache the longest with no references to it
 hardware mechanisms are needed to identify the least
recently used block
 chooses which block to replace when a new block is to
be loaded into the cache
 Write Policy

Dictates when the memory write operation

takes place

●
can occur every time the block is updated
●
can occur when the block is replaced
●
minimizes write operations
●
leaves main memory in an obsolete state
 I/O Techniques
∗ When the processor encounters an instruction relating to
I/O, it executes that instruction by issuing a command to the
appropriate I/O module

Three techniques are possible for I/O

operations:
Progr
amme
d I/O
 Programmed I/O
 The I/O module performs the requested action then
sets the appropriate bits in the I/O status register
 The
processor periodically checks the status of the I/O
module until it determines the instruction is complete
 With programmed I/O the performance level of the
entire system is severely degraded
 Interrupt-Driven I/O

Processor issues an I/O command to a

module and then goes on to do some other The processor executes the data transfer and
useful work then resumes its former processing
 Interrupt-Driven I/O
Drawbacks
 Transferrate is limited by the speed with which
the processor can test and service a device
 The processor is tied up in managing an I/O
transfer
 a number of instructions must be executed
for each I/O transfer
 Direct Memory Access
(DMA)
∗ Performed by a separate module on the system bus or
incorporated into an I/O module

When the processor wishes to read or

write data it issues a command to the
DMA module containing:
●
whether a read or write is requested
●
the address of the I/O device involved
●
the starting location in memory to read/write
●
the number of words to be read/written
 Direct Memory Access
 Transfers
the entire block of data directly to and
from memory without going through the processor
 processor is involved only at the beginning and end of the
transfer
 processor executes more slowly during a transfer when
processor access to the bus is required

 More efficient than interrupt-driven or

programmed I/O
 Symmetric Multiprocessors
(SMP)
 A stand-alone computer system with the
following characteristics:
 two or more similar processors of comparable capability
 processors share the same main memory and are interconnected by
a bus or other internal connection scheme
 processors share access to I/O devices
 all processors can perform the same functions
 the system is controlled by an integrated operating system that
provides interaction between processors and their programs at the
job, task, file, and data element levels
 SMP Advantages
Performance
a system with multiple
processors will yield greater
performance if work can be
done in parallel

Availability
the failure of a single
processor does not
halt the machine
 SMP Organization

Figure 1.19 Symmetric Multiprocessor Organization

 Multicore Computer
 Also known as a chip multiprocessor
 Combines two or more processors (cores) on a
single piece of silicon (die)
 each core consists of all of the components of an
independent processor
 In
addition, multicore chips also include L2
cache and in some cases L3 cache
 Intel Core i7
DDR3 Memory Controller
Supports
b rin gs the two
memo ryforms
co n trollerof
th e DDR (d o u ble data rate) main
fo r

external
memory communications
o n to the ch ip
with th e memo ry co ntro ller o n th e
to other
ch ip th echips:
Fro n t Sid e Bu s is
elimin ated

Quick
Path
Interco
nnect
(QPI)
e
n
a
bl
es
hi
g
h-
sp
ee
d
c
o
m
m
u
ni
ca
ti
o
ns
a
m
o
n
g
c
o
n
n
ec
te
d
pr
o
ce
ss
or
c
hi
ps
Intel
Core i7

Figure 1.20 Intel Corei7 Block Diagram

 Summary
Basic Elements
 processor, main memory, I/O modules, system bus
 GPUs, SIMD, DSPs, SoC
 Instruction execution
 processor-memory, processor-I/O, data processing, control
 Interrupt/Interrupt
Processing
 Memory Hierarchy
 Cache/cache principles and designs
 Multiprocessor/multicore