Topic VI: Statistical

Process Control

PowerPoint presentation to accompany

Heizer, Render, Munson
Operations Management, Twelfth Edition
Principles of Operations Management, Tenth Edition

PowerPoint slides by Jeff Heyl

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 Outline
► Statistical Process Control (SPC)
► Process Capability

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 Statistical Process Control

The objective of a process control

system is to provide a statistical
signal when assignable causes of
variation are present

Monitor STANDARDS by taking

measurements and corrective actions

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 Video: Frito-Lay's
Quality-Controlled
Potato Chips

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 Check the box “Video “

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 Frito-Lay's Quality-Controlled
Potato Chips
1. According to the plant​manager, Tom​Rao, the
four keys to maintaining potato chip quality at​
Frito-Lay are
A. ingredients, process​parameters, "quality​wall," and
bag integrity.
B. ingredients, total customer​complaints, weight, and
bag integrity.
C. ingredients, recipe​(consumer preference), process​
parameters, and​"quality wall.”
D. total customer​complaints, bag​integrity, center line
performance on SPC​chart, and process parameters.
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 Frito-Lay's Quality-Controlled
Potato Chips
2. At​Frito-Lay, the sample size for each
sample​(i.e., the size of​n) is
A. n​= 5.
B. n​= 2.
C. n​= 4.
D. n​= 3.

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 Statistical Process Control
(SPC)
► Variability is inherent
in every process
► Natural or common
causes
► Special or assignable
causes
► Provides a statistical signal when assignable
causes are present
► Quickens appropriate actions to eliminate
assignable causes
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 Natural Variations
► Also called common causes
► Affect virtually all production processes
► Expected amount of variation
► Output measures follow a probability
distribution
► For any distribution there is a measure of
central tendency and dispersion
► If the distribution of outputs falls within
acceptable limits, the process is said to be
"in control"
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 Assignable Variations
► Also called special causes of variation
► Generally this is some change in the process
► Variations that can be traced to a specific
reason (e.g. machine wear, misadjusted
equipment, fatigued/untrained workers, new
batches of materials)
► The objective is to discover when assignable
causes are present
► Eliminate the bad causes
► Incorporate the good causes
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 Control Charts
Constructed from historical data, the
purpose of control charts is to help
distinguish between natural variations
and variations due to assignable causes

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 Variables Versus Attributes
► Variables
► Measures dimensions such as weight,
speed, height, or strength
► Falls within an acceptable range
► Attributes
► Items are either good or bad, acceptable
or unacceptable
► Does not address degree of failure
► Use different statistical techniques

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 Control Charts for Variables
► Characteristics that can take any real value
► May be in whole or in fractional numbers
► Continuous random variables

x-chart tracks changes in the central

tendency
R-chart indicates a gain or loss of
dispersion

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 Control Charts for Variables
► Characteristics that can take any real value
► May be in whole or in fractional numbers
► Continuous random variables

x-chart tracks changes in the central

tendency
c h ar ts
R-chart indicates a gain or lossseof
t wo
T he u s e d
dispersion b
must ther
e
toge
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 Setting Chart Limits
For x-Charts when we know s

Where x= = mean of the sample means or a target value set

for the process
z = number of normal standard deviations
= standard deviation of the sample means
s = population (process) standard deviation
n = sample size

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 Setting Control Limits
▶ Randomly select and weigh nine (n = 9) boxes
each hour
Average weight in
the first sample

WEIGHT OF SAMPLE WEIGHT OF SAMPLE WEIGHT OF SAMPLE

(AVG. OF 9 (AVG. OF 9 (AVG. OF 9

HOUR BOXES) HOUR BOXES) HOUR BOXES)
1 16.1 5 16.5 9 16.3

2 16.8 6 16.4 10 14.8

3 15.5 7 15.2 11 14.2

4 16.5 8 16.4 12 17.3

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 Setting Control Limits

Average mean
x=
of 12 samples

Number
of samples = 12

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 Setting Control Limits

Average mean
x=
of 12 samples

Number
of samples = 12

x=

x=

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 Setting Control Limits
Control Chart
for samples Out of Variation
of 9 boxes control due to assignable
causes
17 = UCL

Variation due to
16 = Mean natural causes

15 = LCL
Variation
due to assignable
| | | | | | | | | | | | causes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Out of
Sample number control

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 Setting Chart Limits
For x-Charts when we don't know s
x=
x=

where average range of the

samples

x= A2 = control chart factor found in Table

S6.1
= mean of the sample means
Ri = range for sample i
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k = total number of samples
 Control Chart Factors
TABLE S6.1 Factors for Computing Control Chart Limits (3 sigma)
SAMPLE SIZE, MEAN FACTOR, UPPER RANGE, LOWER RANGE,
n A2 D4 D3
2 1.880 3.268 0
3 1.023 2.574 0
4 .729 2.282 0
5 .577 2.115 0
6 .483 2.004 0
7 .419 1.924 0.076
8 .373 1.864 0.136
9 .337 1.816 0.184
10 .308 1.777 0.223
12 .266 1.716 0.284

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 Setting Control Limits
Super Cola example Process average = 12 ounces
labeled as "net weight Average range = .25 ounces
12 ounces" Sample size = 5

x=
UCL = 12.144

Mean = 12
From Table
S6.1
x= LCL = 11.856

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 R – Chart
► Type of variables control chart
► Shows sample ranges over time
► Difference between smallest and
largest values in sample
► Monitors process variability
► Independent from process mean

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 Setting Chart Limits
For R-Charts

where

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 Setting Control Limits
Average range = 8 minutes
Sample size = 4
From Table S6.1 D4 = 2.282, D3 = 0

UCL = 18.256

Mean = 8

LCL = 0

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 Restaurant Control Limits
For salmon fillets at Darden Restaurants
x Bar Chart
11.5 –
Sample Mean

UCL = 11.524

=
11.0 – x = 10.959

10.5 – | | | | | | | | |
LCL = 10.394
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
Range Chart
0.8 –
Sample Range

UCL = 0.6943

0.4 – –
R = 0.2125
0.0 – | | | | | | | | | LCL = 0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17

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 Steps In Building Control
Charts
1. Collect 20 to 25 samples, often of n = 4 or n = 5
observations each, from a stable process, and
compute the mean and range of each
2. Compute the overall means ( x= and ), set
appropriate control limits, usually at the 99.73%
level (3-sigma), and calculate the preliminary
upper and lower control limits
► If the process is not currently stable and in control, use
the desired mean, m, instead of x = to calculate limits.

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 Steps In Creating Control
Charts
3. Graph the sample means and ranges on their
respective control charts and determine whether
they fall outside the acceptable limits
4. Investigate points or patterns that indicate the
process is out of control – try to assign causes
for the variation, address the causes, and then
resume the process
5. Collect additional samples and, if necessary,
revalidate the control limits using the new data

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 Control Charts for Attributes
► For categorical data
► Defective/nondefective, good/bad,
yes/no, acceptable/unacceptable
► Measurement is typically counting
defectives
► Charts may measure
1. Percent defective (p-chart)
2. Number of defects (c-chart)

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 Managerial Issues and
Control Charts
Three major management decisions:
► Select points in the processes that
need SPC
► Determine the appropriate charting
technique
► Set clear and specific SPC policies
and procedures

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 Patterns in Control Charts
Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Normal behavior. Process is "in

control."

Figure S6.7

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 Patterns in Control Charts
Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

One plot out above (or below).

Investigate for cause. Process is
"out of control."

Figure S6.7

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 Patterns in Control Charts
Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Trends in either direction, 5 plots.

Investigate for cause of
progressive change.

Figure S6.7

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 Patterns in Control Charts
Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Two plots very near lower (or

upper) control. Investigate for
cause.

Figure S6.7

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 Patterns in Control Charts
Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Run of 5 above (or below) central

line. Investigate for cause.

Figure S6.7

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 Patterns in Control Charts
Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Erratic behavior. Investigate.

Figure S6.7

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 Patterns in Control Charts
▶ Run test
▶ Identify abnormalities in a process
▶ Runs of 5 or 6 points above or below the
target or centerline suggest assignable
causes may be present
▶ Process may not be in statistical control
▶ There are a variety of run tests

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 Process Capability
► The natural variation of a process should
be small enough to produce products that
meet the standards required
► A process in statistical control does not
necessarily meet the design specifications
► Process capability is a measure of the
relationship between the natural variation
of the process and the design
specifications

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 Process Capability Ratio
Upper Specification – Lower Specification
Cp =
6s
► A capable process must have a Cp of at
least 1.0 (barely capable)
► Does not look at how well the process is
centered in the specification range
► Often a target value of Cp = 1.33 is used to
allow for off-center processes
► Six Sigma quality requires a Cp = 2.0
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 Process Capability Ratio
Insurance claims process

Process mean x = 210.0 minutes

Process standard deviation s = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 ± 3 minutes

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp =
6s

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 Process Capability Ratio
Insurance claims process

Process mean x = 210.0 minutes

Process standard deviation s = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 ± 3 minutes

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp =
6s
213 – 207
= = 1.938
6(.516)

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 Process Capability Ratio
Insurance claims process

Process mean x = 210.0 minutes

Process standard deviation s = .516 minutes
Design specification = 210 ± 3 minutes

Upper Specification - Lower Specification

Cp =
6s
213 – 207 Process is
= = 1.938
6(.516) capable

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 Process Capability Index
Upper Lower
Specification – x x – Specification
Cpk = minimum of ,
Limit Limit
3s 3s

► A capable process must have a Cpk of at least

1.0
► A capable process is not necessarily in the
center of the specification, but it falls within the
specification limit at both extremes

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 Process Capability Index
New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation s = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

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 Process Capability Index
New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation s = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

(.251) - .250
Cpk = minimum of ,
(3).0005

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 Process Capability Index
New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation s = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

(.251) - .250 .250 - (.249)

Cpk = minimum of ,
(3).0005 (3).0005

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 Process Capability Index
New Cutting Machine
New process mean x = .250 inches
Process standard deviation s = .0005 inches
Upper Specification Limit = .251 inches
Lower Specification Limit = .249 inches

(.251) - .250 .250 - (.249)

Cpk = minimum of ,
(3).0005 (3).0005

Both calculations result in

.001 New machine is
Cpk = = 0.67
.0015 NOT capable

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