‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫كلية الهندسة التكنولوجية‬

Satellite Communications

Error Control For

Digital Satellite Links
Overview
Error Detection And Correction-1
Channel Capacity-2
Error Control Coding-3
Performance Of block Error Correction Code-4
Convolution Codes-5
Implementation Of Error Detection On Satellite Links-6
Concatenated Coding And Interleaving-7
Turbo Codes-8
 DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

The transmission of binary data across a link

can be accomplished either in parallel mode
.or serial mode
 Parallel Transmission .1

In parallel transmission, several bits of data,

organized into groups are transmitted
concurrently through separate
communication lines. The mechanism for
parallel transmission is simple, use n wires to
send n bits at a time instead of one. In this
way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits
of one group can be transmitted from one
.device to another
The Advantage of parallel transmission is•
.speed
The Disadvantage of parallel transmission is •
.cost
It is expensive; therefore parallel transmission •
.is usually limited to short distances
 Serial Transmission.2

In serial transmission, data is transmitted, one

bit at a time, in a continuous stream along
the communication channels. Thus, in serial
transmission, one bit follows another, so we
need only one communication channel rather
than n to transmit data between two
communication devices
The advantage of serial over parallel
transmission is that with only one
communication channel, serial
transmission reduces the cost of transmission
.over parallel by roughly a factor of n
The general definitions of the terms
:are as follows

Error detection is the detection of errors caused

by noise or other impairments during
transmission from the transmitter to the
.receiver

Error correction is the detection of errors and

.reconstruction of the original, error-free data
 Error Detection

In digital transmission system, an error occurs when a bit is

altered between transmission and reception that is a
.binary 1 is transmitted and a binary 0 is received
:There can be two types of errors
Single-bit error: It is an isolated error condition that alters)1
.one bit but does not effects nearby bits
Error-Burst: A group of bits in which two successive )2
erroneous bits are always separated by less
.than a given number ‘x’ of correct bits
 Techniques for Error Detection
Parity Check : This simplest error detecting scheme is to )1
append a parity bit to the end of the block of data
A typical example is the character transmission, in which a .
parity bit is attached to each 7-bit character. The value of
this bit is selected so that the character has an even
number of 1s (even parity) and an odd number of 1s (odd
parity). If any even number of bits is inverted due to error,
an undetected error occurs. Therefore typically even
parity is used for synchronous transmission and odd
.parity for asynchronous transmission
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): It is the most )2
common & powerful error detecting code
Checksum Error Detection: Another method of )3
error detection uses a process known as
checksum to generate an error detection character.
The character results from summing up all the
bytes of a message together, discarding the
carry-over from the addition. Again the process is
repeated at the receiver end and the two
checksum’s are compared. A mismatch indicated
.that an error has occurred
 Error Correction

correction of errors using an error- detecting code

many cases like wireless data transmission this
-approach is in adequate for two reasons
The bit error rate on the wireless link may be )1
higher due to signal strengths, which may result
.in large number of retransmissions

In satellite links, the propagation delay is very )2

long compared to the transmission time of a
.single frame
Error correction may generally be
:realized in two different ways


Automatic repeat request (ARQ) (sometimes also
referred to as backward error correction): This is an
error control technique whereby an error detection
scheme is combined with requests for retransmission
of erroneous data.

Every block of data received is checked using the
error detection code used, and if the check fails,
retransmission of the data is requested – this may be
done repeatedly, until the data can be verified.
ARQ and FEC may be combined, such that
minor errors are corrected without
retransmission, and major errors are
corrected via a request for retransmission:
this is called hybrid automatic repeat-request
.(HARQ)
 Forward error correction (FEC): The
sender encodes the data using an error-
correcting code (ECC) prior to transmission.
The additional information (redundancy)
added by the code is used by the receiver to
recover the original data. In general, the
reconstructed data is what is deemed the
"most likely" original data.
 Analog and Digital

The difference between (analog) and (digital)

is: we can improve the quality of digital signal
.by the use of error correction techniques
:Analog
We cannot in general dfferentiation between
the signal and the noise electronically in
.analog and difficult to remove noise
.The primary disadvantage of analog is noise*
Analog signal required lesser bandwidth capacity than
.digital capacity

:Digital

Digital signal required greater bandwidth capacity than

.analog signals

In digital system we can add extra redundant bits to**

our data stream which can tell us when an error
occurs in the data and point to the particular bit or
bits have been corrupted
In digital system can only detect error use**
error detection make decision about what
.action to take when error is detected

In digital system can detect and correct errors**

.use forward error correction (FEC)
 Options
Ignore the error to flag the error to
Send block of information again

OR

Estimate the error and replace the

Corrupted data

Which option is selected depends on the nature of

.the signal that is transmitted
In advanced digital satellite communication
:links
.The (FEC) may be switched in -1

out on demand depending on bit error -2

.rate(ER) or (C/N) ratio at a terminal
Coding use to change data from one to another
for example (PCM) change analog data in to
binary words for transmission over a digital
.links
 Coding advantages
Pn
10-3

Un
co
de Coding gain
co

d
de
d

10-8

8 19 Eb/N0 dB
Coding disadvantages

More bandwidth due to redundant

Processing Delay
Design Complexity
The efficiency of a coding is number of
redundant bits add to the detect or correct a
.given number of errors
Some of (FEC) system the number of
redundant bits = the number of data bits ,
result is halving of data rate of given channel
.transmission rate, that called half rate FEC
 Channel Capacity

channel capacity is (the maximum data rate

.that can be attained over a given channel)
 Shannon’s theorem
A given communication system has a*
maximum rate of information C
.known as the channel capacity
If the information rate R is less than C, then*
one can approach
arbitrarily small error probabilities by using
intelligent coding
.techniques
To get lower error probabilities, the encoder*
has to work on longer
blocks of signal data. This entails longer delays
and higher
.computational requirements
Thus, if R C then transmission may be*
accomplished without error in
.the presence of noise
 Error Control Coding

 Error detection coding:

 A technique for adding redundant bits to a
data stream in such a way that one or more
errors in the data stream can be detected.

 Simple Example:
 The single bit parity applied to the ASCII
code
 Data bits parity bit Sum(Modulo-2)

Even parity 0101101 0 0

Odd parity 0101101 1 1

Received codeword Sum of bits Error

detected

One error 01010010 1 yes

Two errors 01010110 0 no
Three errors 11010110 1 yes
 The probability of k bits being in error in a
block of n bits is given by:

 Pe(k)

 P is the probability of a single-bit occuring.

 Example 7.3.1

 A data link transmits 7-bits ASCII words at a bit rate

of 1 Mbps with a single parity bit. The probability of a
bit error on the link is p=0.001
 Find the probability of undetected error when
uncoded data is transmitted and when a single parity
bit is added to each 7-bit word. How many
undetected errors would be present if a 500-page
textbook were transmitted by this link using single
parity?
 LINEAR BLOCK CODES

 Almost all block codes used today belong

to a subset called (linear block codes).

 A linear block code is a code in which the

exclusive OR (addition modulo-2) of two
valid code words creates another valid
codeword.
In coding theory, a linear code is an
error-correcting code for which any
linear combination of codewords is another codeword
.of the code
Linear codes are traditionally partitioned into
block codes and Linear codes are used in
forward error correction and are applied in methods
for transmitting symbols (e.g., bits) on a
communications channel so that
if errors occur in the communication, some errors can ,
be detected by the recipient of a message block. The
"codes" in a linear block code are blocks of symbols
which are encoded using more symbols than the
original value to be sent. A linear code of length n
.transmits blocks containing n symbols
 Formal definition

A linear code of length n and rank k is a

linear subspace C with dimension k of the
vector space where is the finite field with q
.elements
Such a code with parameter q is called a q-ary code
.(e.g., when q = 5, the code is a 5-ary code)
If q = 2 or q = 3, the code is described as a binary
.code, or a ternary code respectively
Remark: We want to give the usual standard basis
because each coordinate represents a "bit"
which is transmitted across a "noisy channel"
with some small probability of transmission error
.(a binary symmetric channel)

If some other basis is used then this model cannot

be used and the Hamming metric (defined next)
does not measure the number of errors in
.transmission, as we want it to
 Generator matrix and parity check
matrix

 Because the linear code could be considered as a

linear subspace C of (and therefore a codeword is a
vector in this linear subspace), any codeword could
be represented as a linear combination of a set of
basis vectors such that , where is the message
and is the generator matrix.

 On another hand, for any linear subspace , there is

a dimension n − k null space such that . The basis
vectors of the null space form another matrix such
that , where is called parity check matrix
 Cyclic Code

 In coding theory, cyclic codes are

linear block error-correcting codes that have
convenient algebraic structures for efficient
error detection and correction
 Definition

Let be a linear code over a finite field GF(q) of

,block length n. is called a cyclic code
if for every codeword c=(c1,...,cn) from C, the
word (cn,c1,...,cn-1) in GF(qn) obtained by a
cyclic right shift of components is again a
.codeword
Same goes for left shifts. One right shift is
equal to n − 1 left shifts and vice versa.
Therefore the linear code is cyclic precisely
.when it is invariant under all cyclic shifts
Cyclic Codes have some additional structural
.constraint on the codes
They are based on Galois fields and because
of their structural properties they are very
.useful for error controls
Their structure is strongly related to Galois
fields because of which the encoding and
decoding algorithms for cyclic codes are
.computationally efficient
 Algebraic structure

 Cyclic codes can be linked to ideals in certain

rings. Let R = A[x] / (xn − 1) be a polynomial ring
over the finite field A = GF(q). Identify the
elements of the cyclic code C with polynomials
in R such that maps to the polynomial : thus
multiplication by x corresponds to a cyclic shift.
Then C is an ideal in R, and hence principal,
since R is a principal ideal ring. The ideal is
generated by the unique monic element in C of
minimum degree, the generator polynomial g.[1]
This must be a divisor of xn − 1. It follows that
every cyclic code is a polynomial code. If the
generator polynomial g has degree d then the
rank of the code C is n − d.
The idempotent of C is a codeword e such
that e2 = e (that is, e is an idempotent
element of C) and e is an identity for the
code, that is e c = c for every codeword c.
Such a word always exists and is unique;
[2] it is a generator of the code.
An irreducible code is a cyclic code in
which the code, as an ideal, is minimal in
R, so that its generator is an irreducible
polynomial
Example

For example, if A= and n=3, the set of 

codewords contained in the (1,1,0)-cyclic code is
precisely
. –

It corresponds to the ideal in generated by (1 + 

.x)
Note that (1 + x) is an irreducible polynomial in 
the polynomial ring, and hence the code is an
.irreducible code
The idempotent of this code is the polynomial x + 
.x2, corresponding to the codeword (0,1,1)
Convolutional Codes

In convolutional codes, each block of k bits is

mapped into a block of n bits but these n bits
are not only determined by the present k
information bits but also by the previous
.information bits
This dependence can be captured by a finite
.state machine
Example
A rate
½ convolutional coder k=1, n=2 with
.memory length 2 and constraint length 3
The length of the shift register is 2, there are 4
.different rates
The behavior of the convolutional coder can be
captured by a 4 state machine. States: 00,
,01, 10, 11
Convolutional coding lends itself to very efficient
.trellis based encoding and decoding

They are very practical and powerful codes

 Implementation of error detection on
satellite links

Invariably the error detection is a user

defined service, which forms a part
operating protocol of any type of
.communication system

Implementation of error correction by use of

error detection and retransmission
.requires the use of protocols
The protocols are the set of actions, which
helps in accurate and ordered data
.transmission through the link
.The usual technique is ARQ
But ARQ system works well on terrestrial
data links with relatively low data rates
and short time delays but their
implementation on satellite link is more
difficult due the long transmission delay
and thus forward error correction is
.preferred for satellite paths
The following three basic techniques can be
used, which are based on the type of link
:used for retransmission request
.In a one way simplex link-1

.In a stop and wait system-2

In a continuous transmission system-3

.using the go-back-N techniques
With sufficient buffering at the both ends of
the link, only the corrupted blocks are
transmitted and the system is called
.selective repeat (ARQ)
Supervisor: Dr.majed Dwairi

:Students
Majd Khader -1
Saed Ayyash -2
Sufian Dare -3