The PN Junction

PN Junction
PN junction can be fabricated by implanting or
diffusing donors into a P-type substrate such that a
layer of semiconductor is converted into N type.
Converting a layer of an N-type semiconductor into P
type with acceptors would also create a PN junction
 PN Junction
A PN junction has rectifying current–voltage (I–V or
IV) characteristics as shown in Fig. 4–2.

As a device, it is called a rectifier or a diode.

The PN junction is the basic structure of solar cell,

light-emitting diode, and diode laser, and is present
in all types of transistors
Building Block of PN Junction Theory
The interface separating the n and p region is referred
to as the metallurgical junction
Building Block of PN Junction Theory
For simplicity, it is usually assumed that the P and N
layers are uniformly doped at acceptor density Na, and
donor density Nd, respectively. This idealized PN
junction is known as a step junction or an abrupt
junction in which the doping concentration in uniform
in the p and n region and there is an abrupt change in
doping at the junction.
Energy Band Diagram and Depletion Layer of
a PN Junction
Let us construct a rough energy band diagram for a PN
junction at equilibrium or zero bias voltage

First draw a horizontal line for because there is only

one Fermi level at equilibrium
Energy Band Diagram and Depletion Layer of
a PN Junction
Far from the junction, we simply have an N-type
semiconductor on one side (with Ec close to EF), and a
P-type semiconductor on the other side (with Ev close
to EF).
Energy Band Diagram and Depletion Layer of
a PN Junction
Finally, in we draw an arbitrary (for now) smooth curve
to link the Ec from the N layer to the P layer. Ev of
course follows Ec, being below Ec by a constant Eg.
 PN Junction
As electron diffuse from n to p region, positively
charged donor are left in the n region

As holes diffuse from p to n region, negatively charged

acceptor are left in the p region

The two region are

referred to as the
space charge region

The charges will

induce electric field
 Energy-band diagram of a pn
junction in thermal equilibrium
Ec and Ev are not flat. This indicates the presence of a
voltage differential. The conduction and valence band
must bend through the space charge region.

Vbi  Fn  Fp

 Energy-band diagram of a pn
junction in thermal equilibrium
Electron in the conduction band of the n region see a
potential barrier when moving into the conduction band
in the p region. This built-in potential barrier is denoted
as eVbi

Vbi  Fn  Fp

 Energy-band diagram of a pn
junction in thermal equilibrium
This built-in potential barrier maintain equilibrium between
i.majority carrier electron in the n region and minority electron
carrier in the p region
ii.majority carrier holes in the p region and minority holes
carrier in the n region

Vbi  Fn  Fp

 Built-in Potential Barrier
The built-in potential barrier is the difference between
the intrinsic Fermi levels in the p and n regions
Vbi  Fn  Fp

In the n region the electron concentration is given by

 ( EC  EF ) 
no  N C exp  
 kT 
which can also be written in the form
 ( EC  EF )   EF  EFi 
no  N C exp    ni exp  
 kT   kT 
 Built-in Potential Barrier
The built-in potential barrier is the difference between
the intrinsic Fermi levels in the p and n regions
Vbi  Fn  Fp

We can define potential  Fn in the n region as

eFn  EFi  EF

Thus, n0 may be written as

 EF  EFi     eFn  
no  ni exp    ni exp  
 kT   kT 
 Built-in Potential Barrier
Taking the natural log of both sides of where n0 = Nd

   eFn  
no  ni exp  
 kT 
It becomes
kT  N d 
Fn  ln  
e n
 i 
 Built-in Potential Barrier
Similarly in the p region, the hole concentration is given
as
 ( EF  Ev )   ( EF  EFi ) 
po  N a  N v exp    ni exp  
 kT   kT 
We can define potential  Fp in the n region as
eFp  EFi  EF

Thus, n0 may be written as

 ( EF  EFi )   eFp 
no  ni exp    ni exp  
 kT   kT 
 Built-in Potential Barrier
Taking the natural log of both sides of where n0 = Nd

 eFp 
no  ni exp  
 kT 
It becomes
kT  N a 
Fp  ln  
e  ni 
 Built-in Potential Barrier
Therefore, the built-in potential barrier becomes

Vbi  Fn  Fp

kT  N d  kT  N a 
 ln   ln  
e  ni  e  ni 
kT  N a N d   Na Nd 
 ln  2   Vt ln  2 
e  ni   ni 
 Poisson’s Equation
Poisson’s equation is useful for finding the electric
potential distribution when the charge density is known.
In case you are not familiar with the equation, it will be
derived from Gauss’s Law here. Applying Gauss’s Law
to the volume shown in
 Poisson’s Equation
Applying Gauss’s Law to the volume shown before
 S E  x  x  A   S E  x  A  pxA
where s is the semiconductor permittivity is equal to 12
times the permittivity of free space. p is the charge density
(C/cm3) and E is the electric field
E  x  x   E  x  p

x s
Taking the limit of Δx → 0,
dE p d 2V dE p
  2  
dx  s dx dx s
 Depletion Model
Let’s divide the PN junction into three regions—the neutral
regions at x > xP and x < –xN, and the depletion layer or
depletion region in between, where p = n = 0 .The charge
density is zero everywhere except in the depletion layer
where it takes the value of the dopant ion charge density
Field and Potential in the Depletion Layer

On the P side of the depletion layer (0 ≤ x ≤ xP)

p  -qN a
dE p -qN a
 
dx  s s
Integrated once to yield
-qN a qN a
E  x  x  C1   xP  x  0  x  xP
s s
C1 is a constant of integration and is determined with the
boundary condition E = 0 at x = xP
Field and Potential in the Depletion Layer

On the N side of the depletion layer (xN ≤ x ≤ 0 ) where xN

is negative
p  qN d
dE p qN d
 
dx  s s
Integrated once to yield
qN d qN d
E  x  x  C2   x  xN  xN  x  0
s s
C1 is a constant of integration and is determined with the
boundary condition E= 0 at x = xN
 Field and Potential in the Depletion Layer

The field must be continuous, and equating the two equation

at x=0 yield
N a xP  N d x N

|xN| and |xP| are the widths of the depletion layers on the two sides
of the junction. They are inversely proportional to the dopant
concentration; the more heavily doped side holds a smaller portion
of the depletion layer. PN junctions are usually highly
asymmetrical in doping concentration. A highly asymmetrical
junctionis called a one-sided junction, either an N+P junction or a
P+N junction, where N+ and P+ denote the heavily doped sides
 Field and Potential in the Depletion Layer

The field must be continuous, and equating the two equation

at x=0 yield
N a xP  N d x N

The equation above tells us that the area density of the negative
charge, Na|xP| (C/cm2), and that of the positive charge, Nd|xN|
(C/cm2), are equal (i.e., the net charge in the depletion layer is
zero). In other words, the two rectangles are of equal size.
Field and Potential in the Depletion Layer
The potential in the junction is found by integrating the
electrical field. In the p region, we have
qN a
V  x    E  x  dx    xP  x  dx
s
that yield
qN a
V  x   P 
2
x  x where 0  x  xP
2 s
We arbitrarily choose the voltage at x = xP as the reference
point for V = 0. Similarly, on the N-side, we integrate
qN d
V  x  D   x  xN 
2

2 s
qN d
 x  xN 
2
 Vbi  where 0  x  xP
2 s
Field and Potential in the Depletion Layer

V(x) is plotted in Fig. e. The

curve consists of two parabolas.
Finally, we can quantitatively
draw the energy band diagram,
Fig. f. Ec(x) and Ev(x) are
identical to V(x), but inverted.
On the P-side,
qN a
V ( x)  ( xP  x ) 2
2 s
On the N-side,
qN d
V ( x)  Vbi  ( x  xN ) 2
2 s
 (a)
N Nd Na P
Depletion-Layer Width
(b) N eut ra l Re gion D eple tion La yer N e utral R egi on

N P
–xnN 0 xpP
V is continuous at x = 0 
2 sbi  1 1 
xP  xN  Wdep    
q  Na Nd 
qN
If Na >> Nd , as in a P+N junction,
d
(c) xp
2 sbi
Wdep  –xxn N xP  xN N d N ax
qN d –qN a

What about a N+P junction?  E

1 1 1 1
Wdep  2 s bi qN where   
N N d N a lighter dopant density
(d)

–xn 0 xp x
EXAMPLE: A P+N junction has Na=1020 cm-3 and Nd
=1017cm-3. What is a) its built in potential, b)Wdep , c)xN ,
and d) xP ?

Solution:
kT N d N a 10 20  1017 cm 6
a) bi  ln 2
 0.026V ln 20 6
1V
q ni 10 cm
1/ 2
2 sbi  2 12  8.85 10 1 
14

b) Wdep    19
  0.12 μm
 1.6 10 10
17
qN d 

xN  Wdep  0.12 μm
c)
xP  xN N d N a  1.2  104 μm  1.2 Å  0
d)
 Reverse-Biased PN Junction
V
+ –

N P

Ec 2 s (bi  | Vr |) 2 s  potential barrier

qbi
Wdep  
qN qN
Ec Ef
Ef Ev

Ev
(a) V = 0 1 1 1 1
  
Ec
N N d N a lighter dopant density
qbi + qV Efp
Ev
• Does the depletion layer
Ec qV
Efn
widen or shrink with
increasing reverse bias?
Ev
(b) reverse-biased
 Maximum Electric Field
The maximum electric field at the metallurgical junction is

eN d xn eN a x p
Emax  
s s
that yield
12
 2e  Vbi  VR   N a N d  
Emax     
 s  N a  N d  
The maximum electric field in the pn junction can also be
written as

2  Vbi  VR 
Emax 
W
 Example 1
Calculate the built-in potential barrier, Vbi for Si, Ge and
GaAs pn junctions if they each have the following dopant
concentrations at T=300K

a)Nd= 1014 cm-3 Na= 1017 cm-3

b)Nd= 51016 cm-3 Na= 5 1016 cm-3
c)Nd=1017 cm-3 Na=1017 cm-3
 Example 1
Calculate the built-in potential barrier, Vbi for Si, Ge and
GaAs pn junctions if they each have the following dopant
concentrations at T=300K

a)Nd= 1014 cm-3 Na= 1017 cm-3

b)Nd= 51016 cm-3 Na= 5 1016 cm-3
c)Nd=1017 cm-3 Na=1017 cm-3
 Si : ni  1.5 1010 cm    
Ge : ni  2.4 1013 cm    
GaAs : ni  1.8 106 cm
 Na Nd 
Vbi  Vt ln  2 
 ni 
 Example 1
Calculate the built-in potential barrier, Vbi for Si, Ge and
GaAs pn junctions if they each have the following dopant
concentrations at T=300K

a)Nd= 1014 cm-3 Na= 1017 cm-3

Then Si: 0.635V

Ge: 0.253V
GaAs: 1.10V
 Example 1
Calculate the built-in potential barrier, Vbi for Si, Ge and
GaAs pn junctions if they each have the following dopant
concentrations at T=300K

b)Nd= 51016 cm-3 Na= 5 1016 cm-3

Then Si: 0.778V

Ge: 0.396V
GaAs: 1.25V
 Example 1
Calculate the built-in potential barrier, Vbi for Si, Ge and
GaAs pn junctions if they each have the following dopant
concentrations at T=300K

c)Nd=1017 cm-3 Na=1017 cm-3

Then Si: 0.814V

Ge: 0.432V
GaAs: 1.28V
 Example 2
An abrupt silicon pn junction at zero bias has dopant
concentration of Na=1017 cm-3 and Nd=51017 cm-3. T=300K

a)Calculate the Fermi level on each side of the junction with

respect to the intrinsic Femi level
b)Sketch the equilibrium energy-band diagram for the
junction and determine Vbi N from the diagram and the
results of the part (a)
c)Determine xn and xp and the peak electric for this junction
 Example 2
An abrupt silicon pn junction at zero bias has dopant
concentration of Na=1017 cm-3 and Nd=51017 cm-3. T=300K

a)Calculate the Fermi level on each side of the junction with

respect to the intrinsic Femi level

Vbi  Fn  Fp

eFn  EFi  EF eFp  EFi  EF

EFi  EF EFi  EF
Vbi  
e n e p
 Example 2
An abrupt silicon pn junction at zero bias has dopant
concentration of Na=1017 cm-3 and Nd=51017 cm-3. T=300K

a)Calculate the Fermi level on each side of the junction with

respect to the intrinsic Femi level

N-side
 Nd   5 1015 
EF  EFi  kT ln     0.0259  ln  10 
 0.3294 eV
 ni   1.5 10 

P-side  Na   1017 
EFi  EF  kT ln     0.0259  ln  10 
 0.4070 eV
 ni   1.5 10 
 Example 2
An abrupt silicon pn junction at zero bias has dopant
concentration of Na=1017 cm-3 and Nd=51017 cm-3. T=300K

b)Sketch the equilibrium energy-band diagram for the

junction and determine Vbi from the diagram and the results
of the part (a)
Vbi  Fn  Fp
 0.7364 V
 Example 2
An abrupt silicon pn junction at zero bias has dopant
concentration of Na=1017 cm-3 and Nd=51017 cm-3. T=300K

c)Determine xn and xp and the peak electric for this junction

1/2
 2 s Vbi  N a  1 
xn        0.426  m
 e  d  N a  N d
N 
1/2
 2 s Vbi  N d  1 
xn        0.0213  m
 e  N a  N a  N d 

 max 
eN d xn

 1.6 10   5 10   0.426 10 
19 15 4

s  11.7   8.85 10 14

 3.29  104 V/cm

 Example 3
An abrupt silicon pn junction at T=300K zero bias has
impurity doping concentration of Na=51016 cm-3 and
Nd=1015 cm-3. Calculate

a)Vbi
b)W at (i) VR=0 and (ii) VR=5V
c)Emax at (i) VR=0 and (ii) VR=5V
 Example 3
An abrupt silicon pn junction at T=300K zero bias has
impurity doping concentration of Na=51016 cm-3 and
Nd=1015 cm-3. Calculate

a)Vbi
  5 1016   1015  
Vbi   0.0259  ln  
  1.5  1010  2

 
 0.6767V
 Example 3
An abrupt silicon pn junction at T=300K zero bias has
impurity doping concentration of Na=51016 cm-3 and
Nd=1015 cm-3. Calculate

b)W at (i) VR=0 and (ii) VR=5V 1/2

 2 s  Vbi  VR   N a  N d  
W   
 e N N
 a d  
For VR =0
 2  11.7   8.85 10   0.6767   5 1016  1015  
1/2
14

W   
  5 10   10   
19
 1.6 10 16 15

W  0.9452  m
 Example 3
An abrupt silicon pn junction at T=300K zero bias has
impurity doping concentration of Na=51016 cm-3 and
Nd=1015 cm-3. Calculate

b)W at (i) VR=0 and (ii) VR=5V 1/ 2

 2 s  Vbi  VR   N a  N d  
W   
 e N N
 a d  
For VR =5
 2  11.7   8.85 10   0.6767  5   5 1016  1015  
1/2
14

W   
  5 10   10   
19
 1.6 10 16 15

W  2.738  m
 Example 3
An abrupt silicon pn junction at T=300K zero bias has
impurity doping concentration of Na=51016 cm-3 and
Nd=1015 cm-3. Calculate

c)Emax at (i) VR=0 and (ii) VR=5V

2  Vbi  VR 
 max 
W
For VR =0
2  0.6767 
 max  4
 1.43  10 4
V/cm
0.9452 10
 Example 3
An abrupt silicon pn junction at T=300K zero bias has
impurity doping concentration of Na=51016 cm-3 and
Nd=1015 cm-3. Calculate

c)Emax at (i) VR=0 and (ii) VR=5V

2  Vbi  VR 
 max 
W
For VR =5
2  0.6767  5 
 max  4
 4.15  10 4
V/cm
2.738 10
Junction Capacitance
An increase in the reverse-
biased voltage dV will
uncover additional positive
charge in the n region and
additional negative charges in
the p region. The junction
capacitance is defined as
dQ
C'
dVR
12
 e s N a N d 
 
 2  Vbi  VR   N a  N d  
One-sided Junctions
One sided step junction: A
step junction where the doping
concentration in one region is
much larger than the doping
concentration in the other
region, that is Na>>Nd or
Nd>> Na

For this example, assume

Na>>Nd where this junction is
knows as p+n
One-sided Junctions
The total space charge width
reduces to
2 s  Vbi  VR 
W
eN d
The junction capacitance of
the p+n junction reduces to
12
 e s N d 
C'  
 2  Vbi  VR  
One-sided Junctions
The junction capacitance of
the p+n junction
12
 e s N d 
C'  
 2  Vbi  VR  

2  Vbi  VR 
2
 1 
  
C ' written
can be   s Nd
eas

2
slope 
e s is
Where the slope N dgiven as
 Example 4
A silicon p+n junction has doping concentration of
Na= 21017 cm-3 and Nd= 21015 cm-3. The cross-sectional
area is 10-5 cm2. Calculate

a)Vbi
b)Junction capacitance at VR=1V, 3V and 5V
 Example 4
A silicon p+n junction has doping concentration of
Na= 21017 cm-3 and Nd= 21015 cm-3. The cross-sectional
area is 10-5 cm2. Calculate

a)Vbi
kT  N a N d 
Vbi  ln  2 
e  ni 
  2 1017   2 1015  
  0.0259  ln  
  1.5 1010  2

 
 0.7305 V
 Example 4
A silicon p+n junction has doping concentration of
Na= 21017 cm-3 and Nd= 21015 cm-3. The cross-sectional
area is 10-5 cm2. Calculate

b)Junction capacitance at VR=1V, 3V and 5V

1/ 2
 e s N d 
C  AC   A   
 2  Vbi  VR  
  1.6 1019 
  105     11.7   8.85 1014   2 1015  
1/ 2

 2  Vbi  VR 
1.287  1013
C
Vbi  VR
 Example 4
A silicon p+n junction has doping concentration of
Na= 21017 cm-3 and Nd= 21015 cm-3. The cross-sectional
area is 10-5 cm2. Calculate

b)Junction capacitance at VR=1V, 3V and 5V

1.287 1013 1.287 10 13
C 
Vbi  VR 0.7305 V  VR

For VR  1V, C  9.783 10 14 F

For VR  3V, C  6.663 10 14 F
For VR  5V, C  5.376 10 14 F
 Junction Breakdown

• Junction Breakdown
– Zener Breakdown
– Avalanche Breakdown
 Junction Breakdown

• As the reverse voltage

increases the diode can
avalanche-breakdown
(zener breakdown).
• Zener breakdown occurs
when the electric field near
the junction becomes large
enough to excite valence
electrons directly into the
conduction band and
generate carriers
Junction Breakdown
 Zener Breakdown

• As the reverse voltage

increases the diode can
avalanche-breakdown
(zener breakdown).
• Zener breakdown occurs
when the electric field near
the junction becomes large
enough to excite valence
electrons directly into the
conduction band and
generate carriers
 Avalanche Breakdown

• The avalanche process

occurs when the carriers in
the transition region are
accelerated by the electric
field to energies sufficient
to free electron-hole pairs
via collisions with bound
electrons.
 Junction Breakdown
The breakdown voltage can be given as

 s Ecrit
2
VB 
2eN B

Where NB is the semiconductor doping in the low-doped

region of the one sided junction while Ecrit is actually Emax at
breakdown
 Example 5
Consider a silicon n+p junction diode. The critical electric
field for breakdown in silicon is approximately Ecrit= 4 105
V/cm. Determine the maximum p-type doping concentration
such that the breakdown voltage is

a)40V
b)20 V
 Example 5
Consider a silicon n+p junction diode. The critical electric
field for breakdown in silicon is approximately Ecrit= 4 105
V/cm. Determine the maximum p-type doping concentration
such that the breakdown voltage is

a)40V
b)20 V
s crit
2
VB  or
2eN B

s  2
 11.7   8.85 10   4 10
14

5 2

NB  
crit

2eVB 2  1.6 1019   40 

N B  N a  1.294 1016 cm -3
 Example 5
Consider a silicon n+p junction diode. The critical electric
field for breakdown in silicon is approximately Ecrit= 4 105
V/cm. Determine the maximum p-type doping concentration
such that the breakdown voltage is

a)40V
b)20 V
s crit
2
VB  or
2eN B

s  2
 11.7   8.85 10   4 10
14

5 2

NB  
crit

2eVB 2  1.6 1019   20 

N B  N a  2.59  1016 cm -3
 Nonuniformly Doped Junctions
In the pn junctions considered so far, each semiconductor
region has been uniformly doped. In actual pn junction
structures, this is rarely true.

In some electronic applications, specific nonuniform doping

profiles are used to obtain special pn junction capacitance
characteristic