QBM 101 Business Statistics

Department of Business Studies

Faculty of Business, Economics &
Accounting
HE
 SUBJECT OUTLINE:
 Module 1: In tro duct ion ;
and graphin g da ta ; organizin g
descriptive measures n um erical
 Module 2: Probability (xác suất) ,
discrete random variables; continuous
random variables and the normal
distribution

 Module 3: Sampling distributions;

estimation; hypothesis testing

 Module 4: Simple linear regression

 C HAPTER 4: P ROBABILITY

4.1 Experiment (phép thử), outcome,
and sample space (không gian mẫu)
 4.2 Calculating probability

4.3 Marginal probability, conditional
probability, an d related probability
concepts
 4.4 of event s an d the
multiplication
Intersection rule

4.5 Union of events an d th e
addition rule

4.6 Countin g ru le,
factorials, combinations, and
permutations
(A) V ENN D IAGRAM AND (B) TREE DIAGRAM
FOR ONE TOSS OF A COIN .
(A) V ENN DIAGRAM AND (B) TREE DIAGRAM
FOR TWO TOSSES OF A COIN .
Suppose we randomly select two workers from a
company and observe whether the worker selected each
time is a man or a woman. Write all the outcomes
for this experiment. Draw the Venn and tree
diagrams for this experiment.
 S IMPLE AND C OMPOUND E VENTS
 An event is a collection of one or more of the outcomes of
a n experiment.

 An event t h a t includes one and only one of the (final)

outcomes for a n experiment is called a simple event.
 E.g. Each of the final four outcomes (MM, MW, WM, and
WW) for this experiment is a simple event.

 A compound event is a collection of more than

one
outcome for a n experiment.

 Let A be the event t h a t a t most one m a n is selected. Event

A will occur if either no m a n or one m a n is selected.
Hence, the event A is given by A = {MW, WM, WW}. Hence,
A is a compound event.
V ENN DIAGRAM FOR EVENT A.
E XAMPLE 4-6
In a group of a people, some are in favor of genetic
engineering a nd others are against it. Two persons are
selected a t random from this group a nd asked whether
they are in favor of or against genetic engineering(kỹ
thuật di truyền). How many distinct outcomes are
possible? Draw a Venn diagram a nd a tree diagram for
this experiment. List all the outcomes included in each
of the following events and state whether they are
simple or compound events.

(a) Both persons are in favor of the genetic engineering.

(b) At most (tối đa) one person is against genetic
engineering.
(c) Exactly one person is in favor of genetic engineering.
E XAMPLE 4-6

Let
 F = a person is in favor of genetic engineering
 A = a person is against genetic engineering
 FF = both persons are in favor of genetic
engineering
 FA = the first person is in favor a nd the
second is
against
 AF = the first is against and the second
is in favor
 AA = both persons are against genetic
engineering
E XAMPLE 4-6

a) Both persons are in favor of

genetic engineering = {FF}
Because this event includes only one
of the final four outcomes, it is a
simple event.
b) At most one person is against genetic
engineering = {FF, FA, AF}
Because this event includes more
than one outcome, it is a compound
event.
c) Exactly one person is in favor of genetic
engineering = {FA, AF}
It is a compound event.
E XERCISE 1
4.7 A box contains a certain number of computer parts, a
few of which are defective. Two parts are selected a t
random from this box a nd inspected to determine if they
are good or defective. How many total outcomes are
possible? Draw a tree diagram for this experiment.

List all the outcomes included in each of the following

events. Indicate which are simple and which are
compound events.

a. At least one pa rt is good.

b. Exactly one pa r t is defective.
c. The first pa r t is good and the second is defective.
d. At most one pa rt is good.
Definition
Probability is a numerical measure of the likelihood
t h a t a specific event will occur.
T HREE C ONCEPTUAL A PPROACHES
TO P ROBABILITY

1. Classical Probability

Definition
Two or more outcomes (or events) t h a t have the
same probability of occurrence are said to be
equally likely outcomes (or events).

1
P(Ei ) 
Total number of outcomes for the experiment

Number of outcomes favorable to A

P( A)
 Total number of outcomes for the experiment
E XAMPLE 4-7

Find the pr obability of obta ining a head a nd the

probability of obtaining a tail for one toss of a coin.

1
P(head)  1
Total number of outcomes  2  .50

1
P(tail)  2  .50
E XAMPLE 4-8

Find the probability of obtaining a n even number

in one roll of a die.

A = {2, 4, 6}. If any one of these three numbers

is obtained, event A is said to occur. Hence,

Number of outcomes included in A 3

P(head)    .50
Total number of outcomes 6
E XAMPLE 4-9

J i m and Kim have been looking for a house to buy

in New Jersey. They like five of the homes they
have looked a t recently and two of them are in
West Orange. They cannot decide which of the five
homes they should pick to make a n offer. They put
five balls (of the same size) marked 1 through 5
(each number representing a home) in a box and
asked their daughter to select one of these balls.
Assuming their daughter’s selection is random,
wha t is the probability t h a t the home selected is in
West Orange?
E XAMPLE 4-9

With random selection, each home has the same

probability of being selected and the five outcomes
(one for each home) are equally likely. Two of the
five homes are in West Orange. Hence,

2
P(a home in West Orange is selected)   .40
5
T HREE C ONCEPTUAL A PPROACHES
TO P ROBABILITY

2. Relative Frequency Concept of Probability

Using Relative Frequency as a n Approximation

of Probability
If a n experiment is repeated n times a nd a n event
A is observed f times, then, according to the
relative frequency concept of probability,

f
P( A)  n
E XAMPLE 4-10
Ten of the 500 r a ndomly selected ca r s
manufactured a t a certain auto factory are found to
be lemons. Assuming t h a t the lemons are
manufactured randomly, what is the probability
t h a t the next car manufactured a t this auto
factory is a lemon?

Let n denote the total number of cars in the sample

and f the number of lemons in n. Then,
n = 500 and
f=
10
Using the relative frequency concept of probability,
we obtain
f 10
E XAMPLE 4-10

490
P(good )  500  0.98

10
P(lemon)  500 

0.02
P P(good )  P(lemon)  0.98  0.02 
T HREE C ONCEPTUAL A PPROACHES
TO P ROBABILITY

3. Subjective Probability (XS chủ quan)

Definition
Subjective probability is the probability assigned to a n
event based on subjective judgment, experience,
information, and belief.

- Influenced by biases, preference, and experience of the

person assigning the probability.

- Eg. The probability of a good student, who is taking

a statistics course, will e arn a n HD1 in the course.
E XERCISE 2

4.38 In a sample of 500 families, 70 have a yearly

income of less t h a n $40,000, 220 have a yearly
income of $40,000 to $80,000, and the remaining
families have a yearly income of more t h a n
$80,000. Write the frequency distribution table for
this problem. Calculate the relative frequencies for
all classes. Suppose one family is randomly
selected from these 500 families. Find the
probability t h a t this family has a yearly income
of

a. less t h a n $40,000
b. more t h a n $80,000
Suppose all 100 employees of a company were
asked whether they are in favor of or against
paying high salaries to CEOs of U.S. companies.
Table 4.3 gives a two way classification of the
responses of these 100 employees.
M ARGINAL P ROBABILITY

Definition
Marginal probability is the probability of a single
event without consideration of any other event.
Marginal probability is also called simple
probability.
C ONDITIONAL P ROBABILITY

Definition
Conditional probability is the probability t h a t a n
event will occur given t h a t another has already
occurred. If A a nd B are two events, then the
conditional probability A given B is written as
P( A| B)
and read as “the probability of A given t h a t B ha s
already occurred.”
 E XAMPLE 4-12
Compute the conditional pr oba bility P (in favor
| male) for the da t a on 100 employees.

Number of males who are in favor 15

P(in favor | male)  Total number of males  60.25
15
P(in favor  15
P(in favor | male)  60  60  .
100
male) P(male)
100 25
E XAMPLE 4-12
 E XAMPLE 4-13
Calculate the conditional probability t h a t a
randomly selected employee is a female given t h a t
this employee is in favor of paying high salaries to
CEOs.

Number of females who are in favor

P(female |in favor)  4
Total number of employees who are in favor 19  .

4 2105
P(female  in favor) 100  4  .
P(female |in favor) 
P(in favor) 
19 100 2105
19
E XAMPLE 4-13
M UTUALLY E XCLUSIVE E VENTS
Definition
Events t h a t cannot occur together are said to be
mutually exclusive events.

If two events A and B are mutually exclusive, then

P( A  B)  0
P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)
If two events A and B are NOT mutually exclusive,
then
P( A  B)  0
P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)
E XAMPLE 4-14
Consider the following events for one roll of a die:
A= a n even number is observed= {2, 4, 6}
B= a n odd number is observed= {1, 3, 5}
C= a number less t h a n 5 is observed= {1, 2, 3, 4}
Are events A and B mutually exclusive? Are events A and C
mutually exclusive?
E XAMPLE 4-15
Consider the following two events for a randomly selected
adult:
Y = this adult has shopped on the Internet a t least
once
N = this adult has never shopped on the Internet
Are events Y and N mutually exclusive?
It is noticed t h a t events Y and N have no common
outcome. Hence, they are mutually exclusive.
I NDEPENDENT E VENTS

Definition
Two events are said to be independent if the
occurrence of one does not change the probability of
the occurrence of the other. In other words, A a nd
B are independent events if

P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B) or
P( A | B)  P( A) or
P(B | A)  P(B)
 E XAMPLE 4-16

Are events “female (F)” and “against (A)” independent?

36 40 81
P(F  A)   0.36  P(F )  P( A)  
 0.324 or 100 100 100
40 36 4
P(F )   0.4  P(F | A)    0.444
100 81 9
 The two events are NOT independent. Or
the two events are dependent.
 E XAMPLE 4-17
A box contains a total of 100 DVDs t h a t were
manufactured on two machines. Of them, 60 were
manufactured on Machine I. Of the total DVDs, 15 are
defective. Of the 60 DVDs t h a t were manufactured on
Machine I, 9 are defective. Let D be the event t h a t a
randomly selected DVD is defective, and let A be the
event t h a t a randomly selected DVD was manufactured
on Machine I. Are events D and A independent?

9
P(D  A) 15 60
100  0.09  P(D)  P( A) 100  100  0.09 or

15 9
P(D)   0.15  P(D | A)  
0.15
100 60
 The two events are independent.
E XAMPLE 4-17
C OMPLEMENTARY E VENTS

Definition
The complement of event A, denoted by Ā or A’, a nd
read as “A bar”, “A prime”, or “A complement,” is
the event t h a t includes all the outcomes for a n
experiment t h a t are not in A.
E XAMPLE 4-18
In a group of 2000 taxpayers, 400 have been audited by
the IRS a t least once. If one taxpayer is randomly selected
from this group, what are the two complementary events
for this experiment, and what are their probabilities?

The two complementary events for this experiment are

 A = the selected tax p ayer h as been a u dited
by the IRS a t least once
 Ā = the selected taxpayer has never been audited by
the IRS

The probabilities of the complementary events are

P (A) = 400/2000 = .20 and

P (Ā) = 1600/2000 = .80

E XAMPLE 4-19
In a group of 5000 adults, 3500 are in favor of stricter gun
control laws, 1200 are against such laws, and 300 have
no opinion. One adult is randomly selected from this
group. Let A be the event t h a t this adult is in favor of
stricter gun control laws. What is the complementary
event of A? What are the probabilities of the two events?

The two complementary events for this experiment are

 A = the selected adult is in favor of stricter gun
control laws
 Ā = the selected adult either is against such laws or
h as no opinion
The probabilities of the complementary events are
P (A) = 3500/5000 = .70 and
P (Ā) = 1500/5000 = .30
E XERCISE 3
4.47 Two thousand randomly selected adults were
asked whether or not they have ever shopped on
the Internet. The following table gives a two-
way classification of the responses.

Have Shopped Have Never Shopped

Male 400 800

Female 350 450
E XERCISE 3
Have Shopped Have Never Shopped

Male 400 800

Female 350 450

a. If one adult is selected a t random from these 2000 adults, find

the probability t h a t this adult
i. has never shopped on the Internet
ii. is a male
iii. has shopped on the Internet given t h a t this adult is a female
iv. is a m a le given t h a t t his adu lt h a s n ever shopped on
t he
Internet

b. Are the events “male” and “female” mutually exclusive? What

about the events “have shopped” and “male?” Why or why not?

c. Are the events “female” and “have shopped” independent? Why

Intersection of Events
Definition
Let A a nd B be two events defined in a sample space.
The intersection of A and B represents the collection of
all outcomes t h a t are common to both A and B a nd is
denoted by A and B .
M ULTIPLICATION R ULE

Definition
The probability of the intersection of two
events is called their joint probability. It is written
as
P( A and B)  P( A 
B)
E XAMPLE 4-20

If one of these employees is selected a t random

for membership on the employee-management
committee, what is the probability t h a t this
employee is a female and a college graduate?
E XAMPLE 4-20

P(F and G) = P(F) P(G | F )

P(F) = 13/40
P(G | F ) = 4/13
P(F and G) = P(F) P(G | F )
= (13/40)(4/13) = .100

4
Alternative: P(F  G)  40  0.1
E XAMPLE 4-21
A box contains 20 DVDs, 4 of which are defective. If two
DVDs are selected a t random (without replacement) from
this box, what is the probability t h a t both are defective?

Let us define the following events for this experiment:

G 1 = event t h a t the first DVD selected is good
D 1 = event t h a t the first DVD selected is defective
G2 = event t h a t the second DVD selected is good
D2 = event t h a t the second DVD selected is defective
We are to calculate the joint probability of D 1 and D2,
P(D 1 and D2) = P(D1 ) P(D2 | D 1 )
P(D1 ) = 4/20
P(D2 | D 1 ) = 3/19
P(D 1 and D2) = (4/20)(3/19) = .0316
E XAMPLE 4-22

The probability t h a t a randomly selected student

from a college is a senior (S) is .20, and the joint
probability t h a t the student is a computer science
(C) major a nd a senior is .03. Find the conditional
probability t h a t a student selected a t random is a
computer science major given t h a t the student is a
senior.

P(C  S ) 0.03
P(C | S )    0.15
P(S )
0.20
M ULTIPLICATION R ULE

Multiplication Rule to Calculate the Probability of

Independent Events

The probability of the intersection of two

independent events A a nd B is

P(A a nd B) = P(A) P(B)

E XAMPLE 4-23
An office building h as two fire detectors. The probability is
.02 t h a t any fire detector of this type will fail to go off
during a fire. Assume t h a t the two fire detectors operate
independently. Find the probability t h a t both of these fire
detectors will fail to go off in case of a fire.

We define the following two events:

A = the first fire detector fails to go off during a fire

B = the second fire detector fails to go off during a fire

Then, the joint probability of A and B is

P(A and B) = P(A) P(B) = (.02)(.02) = .0004
E XAMPLE 4-25

Consider the following two events for a n

application filed by a person to obtain a car loan:
A = event t h a t the loan application is approved
R = event t h a t the loan application is rejected
What is the joint probability of A a nd R?

The two events A a nd R are mutually

exclusive. Either the loan application will be
approved or it will be rejected. Hence,

P(A a nd R) = 0
E XERCISE 4
4.80 In a statistics class of 54 students, 34 have
volunteered for community service in the past. If
two students are selected a t random from this
class, what is the probability t h a t both of them
have volunteered for community service in the
past? Draw a tree diagram for this problem.

4.93 Suppose t h a t 20% of all adults in a small

town live alone, a nd 8% of the adults live alone
a nd have a t least one pet. What is the probability
t h a t a randomly selected adult from this town has
a t least one pet given t h a t this adult lives alone?
Definition

Let A a nd B be two events defined in a sample space. The

union of events A and B is the collection of all outcomes
t h a t belong to either A or B or to both A a nd B and is
denoted by

A or B

P( A or B)  P( A  B)
E XAMPLE 4-26
A senior citizen center ha s 300 members. Of them,
140 are male, 210 take a t least one medicine on a
permanent basis, and 95 are male and take a t least
one medicine on a permanent basis. Describe the
union of the events “male” and “take a t least one
medicine on a permanent basis.”
 95 115  45 255
P(M  A)    0.85
or
300
140 210 95 255
P(M  A)  P(M )  P( A)  P(M  A) 300 300  300   0.85
300
300
E XAMPLE 4-27
A university president ha s proposed t h a t all
students m us t take a course in ethics as a
requirement for graduation. Three hundred faculty
members a nd students from this university were
asked about their opinion on this issue. Find the
probability t h a t one person selected a t random
from these 300 persons is a faculty member or is
in favor of this proposal.
 E XAMPLE 4-27

45  90 15 10 160

P(Faculty  Favor)   0.53 or 
300 300
P(Faculty  Favor)  P(Faculty)  P(Favor)  P(Faculty 
Favor)
70 135 45 160
     0.53
300 300 300 300
 E XAMPLE 4-28
In a group of 2500 persons, 1400 are female,
600 are vegetarian, and 400 are female and
vegetarian. What is the probability t h a t a
randomly selected person from this group is a
male or vegetarian?

1100 600 200 1500

P(M V )  P(M )  P(V )  P(M V ) 2500 2500  2500   0.6
2500
A DDITION R ULE TO F IND T H E P ROBABILITY
OF T H E U NION OF MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE
E VENTS
The pr oba bility of the un ion of t wo m u tu a lly
exclusive events A a nd B is

P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Original formula:
P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)  P( A 
B) P( A  B)  0
P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)  0
 P( A  B)  P( A)  P(B)
E XAMPLE 4-30
Consider the experiment of rolling a die twice.
Find the probability t h a t the sum of the numbers
obtained on two rolls is 5, 7, or 10.

P(sum is 5 or 7 or 10)
= P(sum is 5) + P(sum is 7) + P(sum is 10)
= 4/36 + 6/36 + 3/36 = 13/36 = .3611
E XAMPLE 4-31
The probability t h a t a person is in favor of genetic
engineering is .55 and t h a t a person is against it is .45.
Two persons are randomly selected, and it is observed
whether they favor or oppose genetic engineering.
a) Draw a tree diagram for this experiment
b) Find the probability t h a t a t least one of the two
persons favors genetic engineering.

a) Let
F = a person is in favor of genetic engineering
A = a person is against genetic engineering

This experiment has four outcomes.

E XAMPLE 4-31

b) P(at least one person favors)

= P(FF or FA or AF)
= P(FF) + P(FA) + P(AF)
= .3025 + .2475 + .2475 = .
7975
E XERCISE 5
4.108 There is a n area of free (but illegal) parking
ne ar a n inner-city sports arena. The probability t h a t a
car parked in this area will be ticketed by police is .
50, t h a t the car will be vandalized is .30, and t h a t it
will be ticketed and vandalized is .15. Find the
probability t h a t a car parked in this area will be
ticketed or vandalized.

4.117 The probability t h a t a n open-heart operation is

successful is .84. What is the probability t h a t in two
randomly selected open-heart operations a t least one
will be successful? Draw a tree diagram for this
experiment.
Counting Rule to Find Total Outcomes

If a n experiment consists of three steps and if

the first step can result in m outcomes, the
second step in n outcomes, and the third in k
outcomes, then

Total outcomes for the experiment = m · n ·

k
E XAMPLE 4-32

Suppose we toss a coin three times. This

experiment has three steps: the first toss, the
second toss, a nd the third toss. Each step has two
outcomes: a head a nd a tail. Thus,

Total outcomes for three tosses of a coin = 2 x 2 x 2

=8

The eight outcomes for this experiment are

HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, a nd TTT

E XAMPLE 4-33

A prospective car buyer can choose between a fixed

a nd a variable interest rat e and can also choose a
payment period of 36 months, 48 months, or 60
months. How many total outcomes are possible?

There are two outcomes (a fixed or a variable

interest rate) for the first step a nd three
outcomes (a payment period of 36 months, 48
months, or 60 months) for the second step.
Hence,

Total outcomes = 2 x 3 = 6
E XAMPLE 4-34
A National Football League t eam will play 16
games during a regular season. Each game can
result in one of three outcomes: a win, a loss, or
a tie. The total possible outcomes for 16 games
are calculated as follows:

Total outcomes = 3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3·3 ·3·3·3·3

= 3 1 6 = 43,046,721

One of the 43,046,721 possible outcomes is all 16

wins.
Factorials

Definition
The symbol n!, read as “n factorial,” represents
the product of all the integers from n to 1.

In other words,

n! = n(n - 1)(n – 2)(n – 3) · · · 3 · 2 · 1

By definition,
0! = 1
E XAMPLE 4-35, 4-36, 4-37, 4-38
Evaluate 7!
7! = 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 5040

Evaluate 10!
10! = 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 ·
1
= 3,628,800

Evaluate (12-4)!
(12-4)! = 8! = 8 · 7 · 6 · 5 · 4 · 3 · 2 ·
1
= 40,320

Evaluate (5-5)!
(5-5)! = 0! = 1
Combin a tions

Definition

Combinations give the number of ways x elements

can be selected from n elements. The notation used to
denote the total number of combinations is
n
C  C  n!
x n x
x!(n 
x)!of combinations
which is read as “the number
of n
elements selected x at a time.”
E XAMPLE 4-39
An ice cream parlor ha s six flavors of ice cream.
Kristen wants to buy two flavors of ice cream. If
she randomly selects two flavors out of six, how
many combinations are there?

n = total number of ice cream flavors = 6

x = number of ice cream flavors to be selected = 2

6
C2  6!  6!  6 5  4 3 2 1 
2!(6  2)! 2!4! 2 1 4 3 2
1
Th u s, t he
15re a r e 15 wa ys for Kristen to select
tw o ice cream flavors out of six.
E XAMPLE 4-40
Three members of a jury will be randomly selected
from five people. How many different
combinations are possible?

n = 5 and x = 3

5! 6 5  4 3 2 1
5
C3   5!  
3!(5 
3)!
10
3!2! 3 2 1 2 1
E XAMPLE 4-41
Marv & Sons advertised to hire a financial analyst.
The company has received applications from 10
candidates who seem to be equally qualified. The
company manager has decided to call only 3 of
these candidates for a n interview. If she randomly
selects 3 candidates from the 10, how many total
selections are possible?

n = 10 a nd x = 3

C3 
10

120
P e rm uta tions

Notation

Permutations give the total selections of x

element from n (different) elements in such a
way t h a t the order of selections is important.
The notation used to denote the permutations is
n
P  P  n!
x n x
(n 
x)!of permutations
which is read as “the number
of selecting x elements from n elements.”
E XAMPLE 4-42
A club has 20 members. They are to select three office
holders – president, secretary, and treasurer – for next
year. They always select these office holders by
drawing 3 names randomly from the names of all
members. The first person selected becomes the
president, the second is the secretary, and the third
one takes over as treasurer. Thus, the order in which 3
names are selected from the 20 names is important.
Find the total arrangements of 3 names from these 20.

n = 20 , x = 3
20!
P  (20 
20 3  201918 
6840
3)!
E XERCISE 6
4.122 A small ice cream shop has 10 flavors of ice
cream a nd 5 kinds of toppings for its sundaes. How
many different selections of one flavor of ice cream
a nd one kind of topping are possible?

4.125 A student is to select three classes for next

semester. If this student decides to randomly select
one course from each of eight economics classes,
six mathematics classes, a nd five computer
classes, how many different outcomes are possible?
E XERCISE 6
4.126 A ski patrol unit has nine members available for
duty, and two of them are to be sent to rescue a n
injured skier. In how many ways can two of these nine
members be selected? Now suppose the order of
selection is important. How many arrangements are
possible in this case?

4.131 A company employs a total of 16 workers. The

management has asked these employees to select 2
workers who will negotiate a new contract with
management. The employees have decided to select the
2 workers randomly. How many total selections are
possible? Considering t h a t the order of selection is
important, find the number of permutations.
E XERCISE 6
4.147 A certain state’s auto license plates have
three letters of the alphabet followed by a three-
digit number.
a.How many different license plates are possible if
all three-letter sequences are permitted and any
number from 000 to 999 is allowed?
b.Arnold witnessed a hit-and-run accident. He
knows t h a t the first letter on the license plate of
the offender’s car was a B, t h a t the second letter
was a n O or a Q, and t h a t the last number was a 5.
How many of this state’s license plates fit this
description?
 SUMMARY
 Simple probability, m a rgina l
probability, conditional
complem e n t a ry events, probability,
exclusive events, independent events
m utu a lly

 Union (OR) a nd intersection (AND)

 Counting rule, factorials,

combinations, permutations