Basic Areas of Ethical

Study
Dominic B. Baggayan
1. Normative Ethics
regarded as that branch of ethical inquiry that
considered general ethical questions whose
answers had some relatively direct bearing on
practice (Normative Ethical theories, 2020).
it is a search for an ideal litmus test of proper
behavior (Fieser, n.d.). 
concerned with the standard and criteria by
which we can judge man’s actions to be morally
1. Normative Ethics
includes a consideration of the importance of
human freedom, and a discussion of the limits
of a human’s responsibility for moral decisions
and for the consequences of actions) (Ethics,
9).
the crucial thesis of normative ethical ethics
is that there is only one ultimate principle or
standard of moral conduct, whether it is a
1. Normative Ethics
•THREE ELEMENTS:
1. the person who performs the act
(the agent);
2. the act;
3. and the consequences of the act.
1. Normative Ethics
Deontology
• Deontological normative ethical theories
place the locus of right and wrong in
autonomous adherence to moral laws or
duties (Deontological Theories 2002).
•It emphasizes the correlation between duty
and morality of human acts. 
1. Normative Ethics
Deontology
In deontological ethics an action is considered
morally good because of some characteristic of
the action itself, not because the product of the
action is good. Deontological ethics holds that at
least some acts are morally obligatory regardless
of their consequences for human welfare.
Descriptive of such ethics are such expressions as
“Duty for duty’s sake,” “Virtue is its own
1. Normative Ethics
Deontology
• Also called duty-based ethics, deontology is interested
with what man does, not with the consequences of his
actions.
• It advises people to do the right thing because it is the
right thing to do and keep away from wrong things
because they are wrong. People are counseled to do
the right thing, even if that produces more harm than
doing the wrong thing. People have a moral obligation
1. Normative Ethics
Teleological Ethics 
• Derives duty or moral obligation from what is good or desirable
as an end to be achieved (Teleological ethics, n.d.). 
• It believes that the rightness or wrongness of a human act
is contingent on its outcome. Hence, a human act is
considered morally right if it produces a good outcome. Since
the moral goodness of a human act is dependent only on its
results, the more good results a human act produces, the
better or more right that human act is. The results of a human
act generally eclipse all other considerations.
1. Normative Ethics
Teleological Ethics 
•Every teleological moral theory locates morality
in the outcomes of human actions.
•Teleological ethical theorists contend that
every human act is teleological in the sense
that man reasons about the means of realizing
certain goals. Thus, all moral conduct is goal-
directed.
1. Normative Ethics
Virtue Ethics  
• Emphasize the role of character and virtue in moral
philosophy rather than either doing one’s duty or acting
in order to bring about good consequences
(Athanassoulis, N. n.d.).
• Therefore, the fundamental component of moral
behavior is the person’s character rather than ethical
duties and rules about the acts themselves or
consequences of particular actions.
1. Normative Ethics
Virtue Ethics  
• This moral theory is character or person-based
rather than action based because it places special
emphasis on the moral character of the person
executing the act.
• Virtue ethics is primarily concerned with traits of
character that are essential to human flourishing,
not with the enumeration of duties.
1. Normative Ethics
Virtue Ethics  
• It falls somewhat outside the traditional dichotomy
between deontological ethics and consequentialism: It
agrees with consequentialism that the criterion of an
action’s being morally right or wrong lies in its relation
to an end that has intrinsic value, but more closely
resembles deontological ethics in its view that morally
right actions are constitutive of the end itself and not
mere instrumental means to the end. 
1. Normative Ethics
Virtue Ethics  
• Virtue ethics is not only concern with the morality of
individual acts, but it is also a source of counsel as to the
type of attributes and behaviors human beings should
realize. It does not just focus its attention on particular
moral acts, rather more concerned with the whole of a
person's life. It believes that a moral being is someone
who lives virtuously, someone who possesses and
actually applies the virtues he has learned.
2. Meta-Ethics
 Meta-ethics is a branch of analytic philosophy
that explores the status, foundations, and scope of
moral values, properties, and words. (Meta-ethics,
n.d.)
 It is an inquiry about the nature of ethical
assertions, attitudes, and evaluations.
 It belongs to the three branches of ethics
considered as framework, the others being
2. Meta-Ethics
Garner and Rosen (1967), claimed that there are three
kinds of meta-ethical problems, or three general
questions:

1. What is the meaning of moral terms or judgments?

(moral semantics)
2. What is the nature of moral judgments? (moral
ontology)
3. How may moral judgments be supported or
2. Meta-Ethics
► The first meta-ethical problem or general question
investigates the meaning of the terms: good, bad, right
and wrong.
► Question of the second kind inquires on the
universality or relativity of moral judgments.
► The third problem raises the question on our ability
to know if a human act is right or wrong.
Garner and Rosen (1967), argued that answers to the
three basic questions are not unrelated, and sometimes an
Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-
Cognitivism
a. Moral Cognitivism
• holds that moral statements do express beliefs and that
they are apt for truth and falsity (Moral Cognitivism vs.
Non-Cognitivism, 2018).
• claims that ethical sentences convey propositions that
are capable being true or false.
• also declares that right and wrong are matters of fact.
Moral realism and ethical subjectivism are the two most
common forms of cognitivism.
Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-
Cognitivism
a.1 Moral Realism (or Moral Objectivism)
• is the position that ethical
sentences express propositions that refer to objective
features of the world, that is, features independent of
subjective opinion (Shafer-Landau,2015).
• assumes that moral values are objectively true and their
truth does not depend or are independent of our
opinions, perception, beliefs, feelings or attitudes of
them.
Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-
Cognitivism
a.2 Ethical Subjectivism 
• is the meta-ethical view which claims that the truth or
falsity of such propositions is ineliminably dependent on the
(actual or hypothetical) attitudes of people (Brandt ,1959). 
• Contrary to moral realism, ethical subjectivism argues that
there are no objective moral truths. The truth or falsity of
ethical propositions is dependent on our opinions,
perception, beliefs, feelings or attitudes towards them.
Ethical sentences are arbitrary because they do not
convey unchanging truths.
Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-
Cognitivism
b. Moral Non-Cognitivism
• holds the view that ethical statements lack truth-value which
means they are neither true nor false.
• According to Garner and Rosen (1967), noncognitivist denies
the cognitivist claim that moral judgments are capable of being
objectively true, because they describe some feature of the world.
If moral statements cannot be true, and if one
cannot know something that is not true, noncognitivism implies
that moral knowledge is impossible (Garner and Rosen,1967).
Moral truths are not the type of truths that can be known.
Moral Cognitivism versus Moral Non-
Cognitivism
b.1 Emotivism 
•is a meta-ethical view that claims that
ethical sentences do not express propositions but
emotional attitudes (Garner and Rosen,1967). It
assumes that the purpose of ethical propositions is
to convey emotions of approval or disapproval. To a
certain degree they are also imperatives meant to
sway the frame of mind of other people.
Moral Universalism versus Moral
Relativism
a. Moral Universalism
• which is also called moral objectivism proposes
that ethical implications of an action is universally
applicable to everybody, regardless of
circumstance. 
• It believes that there is a universal moral
system which applies to anyone which transcends
culture, nationality, race, religion, sexuality or other
distinguishing feature. 
Moral Universalism versus Moral
Relativism
Moral Relativism
• is a philosophical position which believes
that moral judgments are true or false only
relative to some particular standpoint (for
instance, that of a culture or a historical
period) and that no standpoint is uniquely
privileged over all others (Westacott, n.d.).
Moral Universalism versus Moral
Relativism
Moral Relativism
• Moral judgments differ from person to person and
are all equally valid and no one’s belief of right and
wrong is really better than any other.
• There is no objective and ultimate standard of
morality, so each moral judgment about right and
wrong is relative to a person’s cultural, social,
historical or personal circumstances and
preferences.
Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus
Moral Intuitionism
A. Moral Empiricism
• is an ethical perspective which assumes that moral
knowledge is based on one’s experiences and
observations.
• It claims that moral learning and knowledge is not
possible without experience.
• This ethical view is an extension of empiricism in
epistemology that states that knowledge comes only or
primarily from sensory experience (Psillos and Curd,
2010).
Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus
Moral Intuitionism
A. Moral Empiricism
• Empiricism emphasizes the role of empirical evidence
in the formation of ideas, rather than innate ideas or
traditions (Forrest and Kaufmann, 2008).
• Other forms of moral empiricism suggest that moral
truths are reducible to matters about man’s judgments
and beliefs or cultural practices and therefore are
recognizable by observation and experience of their
practices.
Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus
Moral Intuitionism
B. Moral Rationalism
• is a view in meta-ethics (specifically the
epistemology of ethics) according to which moral
principles are knowable a priori, by reason alone
(Capps and Pattinson, 2017).
• It considers reason as the main source and test of
moral knowledge.
• Because of reason, certain moral truths exist and
that the intellect can directly grasp these truths.
Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus
Moral Intuitionism
C. Moral Intuitionism
• argued that moral truths are self-evident,
that is, evident in and of themselves and
so can be known without the need of any
proof or reasoning.
• What is morally right or morally wrong is
self-evident in nature and cannot be
known through human experience.
Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus
Moral Intuitionism
C. Moral Intuitionism
Intuitionism teaches three main things:
►(1) There are real objective moral truths that are independent of
human beings.
►(2) These are fundamental truths that can't be broken down into
parts or defined by reference to anything except other moral
truths.
►(3) Human beings can discover these truths by using their minds
in a particular, intuitive way (Intuitionism, n.d.).
Moral Empiricism versus Moral Rationalism versus
Moral Intuitionism
C. Moral Intuitionism
Intuitionism teaches three main things:
►(1) There are real objective moral truths that are independent of
human beings.
►(2) These are fundamental truths that can't be broken down into
parts or defined by reference to anything except other moral
truths.
►(3) Human beings can discover these truths by using their minds
in a particular, intuitive way (Intuitionism, n.d.).
3. APPLIED ETHICS
Refers to any use of philosophical methods
critically to examine practical moral decisions and
to treat moral problems, practices, and policies in
the professions, technology, government, and the
like (Applied ethics, 2020).
As a problem-solving branch of ethics, it strives
to find out the application of moral knowledge
into practice.
3. APPLIED ETHICS
•It bridges ethical theory and practical
and feasible solutions.
•It has produced principle-based attitude
toward ethical issues which in many
instances result in solutions to particular
problems that are not globally
acceptable.
3. APPLIED ETHICS
• This discipline studies difficult moral questions and
controversial moral issues that human beings actually face in
their lives like: abortion, euthanasia, death penalty, suicide,
cloning humans, vaccination, harassment, discrimination, gay
or lesbian relations, war tactics, animal rights, capital
punishments or nuclear war and environmental issues.
•Some of the key areas of applied ethics are:
bioethics, environmental ethics, business
ethics, sexual ethics, and social ethics.
BIOETHICS
•This is branch of applied ethics that studies
the philosophical, social, and legal issues
arising in medicine and the life sciences
(Chadwick, n.d.).
•Bioethics devotes its time and attention in
studying the moral controversies brought
about by advances in biology and medicine.
BIOETHICS
• It is concerned with scientific advances that can
alter the way we understand health and illness
and, ultimately, the way we live and die. It is
multidisciplinary because it draws contributions
from many different academic disciplines or
professional specializations such as philosophy,
theology, history, anthropology, law, medicine,
nursing, health policy, social work and the medical
humanities.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
• This is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral
relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral
status of, the environment and its non-human contents
(Environmental ethics, 2015).
• It deals with man’s moral obligation to the preservation and
care of the non-human world.
• Environmental ethics rests on the principle that all life forms
on earth have the right to live.
• Human beings and nature are closely linked with each other
because they depend on one another for their existence.
BUSINESS ETHICS
• The study of the ethical dimensions of productive organizations
and commercial activities (Business ethics, 2016).
• It is interested in the analyses of the ethical problems and
principles in the manufacture, supply, advertising, and selling of
products and services.
• Business ethics is beyond just a moral code of right and wrong
in the workplace. Over and above their obligation to the law,
business organizations must be conscious of the moral
impact of their activities on customers, employees,
shareholders, communities and the environment in all aspects
of their operations.
BUSINESS ETHICS
• More than knowledge and experience in managing a
business the interests of the community are of paramount
importance. There should be a balance between the
purpose of business, which is to make money and its
unwritten social responsibilities to its employees and
society.
• Corporate governance, employee rights, unions, insider
trading, bribery, misleading advertising, discrimination,
corporate social responsibility, fiduciary responsibilities, and
even slavery are some of the controversial
subjects addressed in business ethics.
SEXUAL ETHICS
•The study of human sexuality and
sexual behavior.
•It seeks to investigate thoroughly
moral behavior regarding with whom
people have sex and how they do so.
SEXUAL ETHICS
•It is an attempt to bring about a
comprehensive understanding of the
moral conduct of interpersonal
relationships and sexual practices from
social, cultural, religious, medical, legal
and philosophical perspectives.
SEXUAL ETHICS
• Sexual ethics explores topics such as procreation,
abortion, contraception, adultery, extramarital
sex, sexual harassment, sexual abuse, polyamory,
seduction, flirting, prostitution, homosexuality,
pornography, masturbation, incest, rape,
sadomasochism, bestiality, pedophilia, sexually
transmitted infections, genital modification and
mutilation, teenage pregnancy, celibacy, and
marriage.
SOCIAL ETHICS
• This is an analysis of the set of rules, guidelines, values,
behaviors and responsibilities people have toward
themselves, each other, and the world as a whole.
• The collection of social principles regulate relationships
within a society, specifically with regard to determining
what is considered morally right, just and noble.
• The rules which society judges acceptable are expected
to be followed because they are meant to guide people
in their ethical choices and values.
SOCIAL ETHICS
• Social ethics teaches what each person will and will
not tolerate from each other within society.
• To maintain social equilibrium, the welfare of
society as a whole must be placed ahead of the
interests of any individual. People in a society
cannot do as they please.
• There are social norms and laws that prescribe
boundaries and encourage social responsibility.
SOCIAL ETHICS
•Social ethics validates if people’s
decisions and actions cause harm to
society or the environment.
•Each person is responsible to act in
manner that benefits his society and
not solely himself.
SOCIAL ETHICS
• Social ethics closely and thoroughly examines problems such as: environmental
pollution, global warming, antisocial behavior, poverty, malnourishment, lack of
access to food and clean water, access to clean and affordable living,
unemployment, homelessness, discrimination and violence, drug abuse, alcohol
abuse, political corruption, prostitution, sexual abuse, rape, early pregnancy,
same-sex marriage, birth control, HIV/AIDS, prostitution, gay marriages, gender
issues, child labor, lack of proper access to education, the shortage of schools, the
lack of infrastructure, alcoholism, food and drug safety, suicide, drug abuse,
capital punishment, animal abuse, human rights, women's rights, children’s
rights, world population, organ & body donation, euthanasia & assisted suicide,
death penalty, consumer debt and bankruptcy, judicial reform, censorship, gun
control, terrorism, nuclear weapon production, immigration, tobacco, nuclear
proliferation, cancer, health care reform, religious conflict & war, political
polarization, government accountability, lack of access to credit, eating disorders,
obesity and the lack of physical fitness programs.