Teaching, Learning & Assessment

2009
 Conditions of Learning
Definition of Learning
The process of Learning
Factors influencing Learning
Conditions for Learning
Learning
Theories of Learning
Why consider learning theories?
Teaching and learning activities can be designed and
implemented to take principles of learning into account.
Also, it is interesting to think about individual
differences among learners and to work towards
including activities that have variety and interest for all
the learners in educational programs.
 Summary of Learning Theories
Gagne’s Conditions of Learning Theory:
Based on a hierarchy of intellectual skills organized
according to complexity that can be used to identify
prerequisites necessary to facilitate learning at each level.
Instruction can be made more efficient by following a
sequence of nine instructional events defined by the
intellectual skills that the learner is required to learn for
the specific task at hand.
 Holistic learning theory
Learner viewed as a whole – a
physical, emotional, social and
spiritual being with limitless
potential.
The underlying holistic principle is
that a complex organism functions
most effectively when all its
component parts are themselves
functioning and co-operating
effectively.
Learning - an interaction between
four distinct modes of psychological
being: feeling, imaginal, thinking and
practical.
How applicable is this to the
university T-L environment?
 Holistic learning theory (Cont.)
Feeling is presented as our fundamental mode, rather
than thinking.
The significance of this alternative orientation is that the
crucial requirement for each learner is to establish a
relationship with their total learning situation which is
intimate, resonant and positive (i.e. in the feeling mode).
Only when this is firmly in place is it considered that the
learner will be free to tap fully into the other three modes
of the learning model, viz. imaginal, thinking and
practical.
 Constructivist Theory
Refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge
for themselves---each learner individually (and
socially) constructs meaning---as he or she learns.
Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other
kind.
The dramatic consequences of this view are twofold:
1) we have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning
(not on the subject/lesson to be taught):
2) There is no knowledge independent of the meaning
attributed to experience (constructed) by the learner, or
community of learners.
 Bruner’s Constructivist Theory:
Learning is an active process in which learners
construct new ideas based upon their current
knowledge.
Instruction can be made more efficient by
providing a careful sequencing of materials to
allow learners to build upon what they already
know and go beyond the information they have
been given to discover the key principles by
themselves.
 Other Learning Theories
 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of observing
and modeling the behaviors and attitudes of others. Instruction can be made
more efficient by modeling desired behaviors of functional value to learners
and by providing situations which allow learners to use or practice that
behavior to improve retention.

 Carroll’s Minimalist Theory advises that course designers must minimize

instructional materials that obstruct learning and focus the design on
activities that support learner-directed activity. Instruction can be made more
efficient when the amount of reading is minimized and learners are allowed to
fill in the gaps themselves.

 Vygostky’s Theory of Social Cognitive Development reasons that social

interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition.
Instruction can be made more efficient when learners engage in activities
within a supportive environment and receive guidance mediated by
appropriate tools.
Reinforcement theory
Skinner believed that behaviour is a function of its
consequences. The learner will repeat the desired behaviour
if positive reinforcement (a pleasant consequence) follows
the behaviour. Negative reinforcement also strengthen a
behaviour (e.g. when a negative condition is stopped or
avoided as a consequence of the behaviour).
Competency Based Training is based on this theory, and
although it is useful in learning repetitive tasks like
multiplication tables and those work skills that require a
great deal of practice, higher order learning is not involved.
 Facilitation theory (the humanist
approach)
Carl Rogers and others have developed the theory of
facilitative learning. The basic premise of this theory is that
learning will occur by the educator acting as a facilitator, that
is by establishing an atmosphere in which learners feel
comfortable to consider new ideas and are not threatened by
external factors (Laird 1985.)
Other characteristics of this theory include:
 a belief that human beings have a natural eagerness to learn,
 there is some resistance to, and unpleasant consequences of,
giving up what is currently held to be true,
 the most significant learning involves changing one's concept of
oneself.
 Facilitation theory (Cont.)
Facilitative teachers are:
less protective of their constructs and beliefs than other
teachers,
more able to listen to learners, especially to their feelings,
inclined to pay as much attention to their relationship with
learners as to the content of the course,
apt to accept feedback, both positive and negative and to
use it as constructive insight into themselves and their
behaviour.
 Facilitation theory (Cont.)
Learners:
are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning,
provide much of the input for the learning which occurs
through their insights and experiences,
are encouraged to consider that the most valuable
evaluation is self-evaluation and that learning needs to focus
on factors that contribute to solving significant problems or
achieving significant results.
Experiential Learning theory
Kolb proposed a four-stage learning process with a
model that is often referred to in describing
experiential learning (McGill & Beaty, 1995).
The process can begin at any of the stages and is
continuous, i.e. there is no limit to the number of
cycles you can make in a learning situation.
This theory asserts that without reflection we would
simply continue to repeat our mistakes.
Differences in learning styles
Honey & Mumford (1986, cited in McGill & Beaty
1995, p.177) building on Kolb's work, identified four
learning styles:
Activist (enjoys the experience itself),
Reflector (spends a great deal of time and effort
reflecting)
Theorist (good at making connections and
abstracting ideas from experience)
Pragmatist (enjoys the planning stage)
Action Learning (AL)
Pioneered by Professor Reg Revans and developed
worldwide over the last 50 years, it provides a well-
tried method of accelerating learning which enables
people to handle difficult situations more effectively.
AL involves working on real problems, focusing on
learning and actually implementing solutions.
It is a form of learning by doing.
 Action Learning (Cont.)
AL was founded on the principle that it creates conditions in a
tight learning community such that real people are obliged to
tackle real problems in real time:
·         small stable group ('Set') of about six 'comrades in adversity'
working in a regular social process
·         learn from and with each other to take observable action
·         target the reality of the 'mess' at field level
·         problems are complex and have no identifiable solution
·         issues have significance and risk for the participants
·         proceed by conjecture and refutation
·         exchange advice, criticism and support
·         activities lead to examination of the problem(s) and the self
·         learning is both defined and accidental
 Action Learning (Cont.)
AL is a process of inquiry, beginning with the experience of
not knowing 'what to do next', and finding that answers are
not available through current expertise.
When expertise fails to provide an answer, collaborative
inquiry with fellow learners who are undergoing the same
questioning experience is always available.
To be effective, this partnership in learning needs to be both
supportive and at the same time challenging, deeply caring
yet questioning.
Such partnerships actually create themselves when different
people with different ideas engage whole-heartedly with each
other to resolve each others' problems.
 Adult Learning (Andragogy)
Malcolm Knowles (1978, 1990) is the theorist who brought
the concept of adult learning to the fore.
He has argued that adulthood has arrived when people
behave in adult ways and believe themselves to be adults.
Then they should be treated as adults.
He thought that adult learning was special in a number of
ways.
Andragogy (Cont.)
Characteristics of Adult Learners:
Adult learners bring a great deal of experience to the
learning environment. Educators can use this as a resource.
Adults expect to have a high degree of influence on what
they are to be educated for, and how they are to be educated.
The active participation of learners should be encouraged in
designing and implementing educational programs.
Adults need to be able to see applications for new learning.
Adult learners expect to have a high degree of influence on
how learning will be evaluated.
Adults expect their responses to be acted upon when asked
for feedback on the progress of the program.
References
Knowles, M.S. 1990. The Adult Learner: a Neglected
Species 4th edition. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company,
Book Division
McGill, I & Beaty, L. 1995. Action Learning, second
edition: a guide for professional, management and
educational development. London: Kogan Page.
http://www.jwelford.demon.co.uk/brainwaremap/holist.
html
. Accessed on 02/03/2009.
http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsd/2_learntch/the
ories.html#holistic
. Accessed on 02/03/2009.