Chapter 1: Introduction

Wireless communications and mobility

 History of wireless/mobile communications
 Market penetration and growth
 Areas of research
Electronic Computing Devices & Technology
Trends
• Advances in Technology
• more computing power in smaller devices
• flat, lightweight displays with low power consumption
• user interfaces suitable for small dimensions
• higher bandwidths
• multiple wireless interfaces: wireless LANs, wireless WANs, home RF, Bluetooth
• New Electronic Computing Devices
• small, cheap, portable, replaceable and most important of all USABLE!
• Technology Trends
• devices are aware of their environment and adapt - “location awareness”
• devices recognize the location of the user and react appropriately (e.g., call forwarding, fax
forwarding)
Wireless and Mobile Communications
• Definition of mobility:
• user mobility: users communicate anytime, anywhere, with anyone
• device portability: devices can be connected anytime, anywhere to the network
• Definition of wireless:
• Un-tethered, no physical wire attachment
• Wireless vs. Mobile Examples
  stationary computer
  notebook in a hotel
  wireless LANs in legacy buildings
  Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
• The need for mobility creates the need for integration of wireless networks into
existing fixed network environments:
• local area networks: standardization of IEEE 802.11b/g/a
• Internet: Mobile IP extension of the internet protocol IP
• wide area networks: e.g., internetworking of 3G and IP
Applications I
• Vehicles
• transmission of news, road conditions, weather
• personal communication using cellular
• position identification via GPS
• inter vehicle communications for accident prevention
• vehicle and road inter communications for traffic
control, signaling, data gathering
• ambulances, police, etc.: early transmission of patient
data to the hospital, situation reporting
• entertainment: music, video
Highway Scenario

GSM, 3G, WLAN, oc

h
Bluetooth, ... ad

PDA, laptop, cellular phones,

GPS, sensors
Applications II
• Mobile workers
• access to customer files and company documents stored in a central
location
• collaborative work environments
• access to email and voice messages
• Replacement of fixed networks
• remote sensors, e.g., weather, environment, road conditions
• flexible work spaces
• LANs in legacy buildings
• Entertainment, education, ...
• outdoor Internet access
• intelligent travel guide with up-to-date

Buil C
150
location dependent information

t
B
• ad-hoc networks for
multi user games
Mobile Devices
Pager PDA Laptop
• receive only • simple graphical displays • fully functional
• tiny displays • character recognition • standard applications
• simple text • simplified WWW
messages

Sensors,
embedded
controllers

Mobile phones Palmtop

• voice, data • tiny keyboard
• simple text displays • simple versions
of standard applications

performance
Impact of Portability on Device Design / Functionality
• Power consumption
• battery capacity - limited computing power, low quality/smaller displays, smaller
disks, fewer options (I/O, CD/DVD)
• CPU: power consumption ~ CV2f
• C: internal capacity, reduced by integration
• V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit
• f: clock frequency, can be reduced dynamically based on usage

• Device vulnerability
• more rugged design required to withstand bumps, weather conditions, etc.
• theft
• Limited/Simpler User Interfaces
• display size
• compromise between comfort/usability and portability (keyboard size)
• integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols
• Limited memory
• memory limited by size and power
• flash-memory or ? as alternative
Wireless Networks Compared to Fixed
Networks
• Higher loss-rates due to interference
• other EM signals, objects in path (multi-path, scattering)
• Limited availability of useful spectrum
• frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied
• Low transmission rates
• local area: 2 – 11 Mbit/s, wide area: 9.6 – 19.2 kbit/s
• Higher delays, higher jitter
• connection setup time for cellular in the second range, several hundred milliseconds for wireless LAN systems
• Lower security, simpler active attacking
• radio interface accessible for everyone
• base station can be simulated, thus attracting calls from mobile phones
• Always shared medium
• secure access mechanisms important
Location Dependent Services
• Location aware services
• what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local
environment that can be used by the user (security and authentication)
• Follow-on services
• automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the
current location
• Information services
• push: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
• pull: e.g., where is the Sarah Lee New York Cheese Cake?
• Support services
• caches, intermediate results, state information, etc., follow the mobile
device through the fixed network
• Privacy
• who should gain knowledge about the location of the user/device
History & Development – Theoretical Foundations
• Electro Magnetic (EM) waves
• 1678 Huygens work on the phenomena of light reflection
and refraction
• 1819 Fresnel demonstrates the wavelike nature of light
• 1831 Faraday demonstrates electromagnetic induction
• 1864 J. Maxwell introduces the theory of electromagnetic
fields, wave equations
• 1886 H. Hertz demonstrates experimentally the
transmission and detection of an EM wave between two
points a few meters apart
• 1896 Marconi recognized that longer waves propagate
over larger distances and demonstrates a communication
set-up over 3km
History & Development: Development & Applications

• 1898 - 1901 - Guglielmo Marconi

• first demonstration of wireless
telegraphy (Morse code - digital!)
• long wave transmission over longer distances (transatlantic) at an operating
frequency of 1MHz
• 1906 - 1st World Admin. Radio Conf. (WARC -> WRC)
• increasing popularity of radio systems and their extended use
• ability to define BW using filters led to spectrum control
• recommendations for the assignment of RF bands
• 1907 - Commercial transatlantic connections
• huge base stations
(30 100m high antennas)
• 1915 - Wireless voice transmission N.Y. - San Francisco
• 1920 - Discovery of short waves by Marconi
• reflection at the ionosphere
• smaller sender and receiver -> due to the invention of the vacuum tube (1906 - Lee
DeForest and Robert von Lieben)
History & Development: Development & Applications

• 1933 - Frequency modulation (E. H. Armstrong)

• 1946 - Mobile Telephone Service (MTS) in US
• introduced in 1946, it allowed telephone calls between fixed stations and
mobile sers
• one single powerful transmitter/receiver (base station) provided coverage
of up to 50km
• based on FM technology, each voice channel of 3kHz used 120KHz of
spectrum, and only half duplex service was available
• blocking probabilities were as high as 65% (only 12 simultaneous calls
could be handled!)
• 1958 - A-Netz in Germany at 160MHz
• analog cellular, connection setup only from the mobile station, no
handover, 80% coverage, 1971 only 11000 customers
• 1972 - B-Netz in Germany at 160MHz
• connection setup from the fixed network (location of the mobile station
had to be known)
History & Development: Analog Cellular
Services
• Two major technological improvements made the cellular concept a reality:
• the microprocessor -> allowed for complex algorithms to be implemented, and
• digital control links between base station and mobile unit -> allowed for increased control of
the system so more sophisticated services could be made available:
• hand-overs
• digital signaling
• automatic location of mobile device
• 1979 - Analog Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in US
• 1979 - NMT at 450MHz in Scandinavian countries
• 1985 - France’s Radiocom 2000
• 1985 - UK’s TACS
• 1986 - C-Netz in Germany at 450MHz
 History & Development: Digital Cellular
• 1991 - Specification of DECT
• Digital European Cordless Telephone (today: Digital Enhanced Cordless
Telecommunications)
• 1880-1900MHz, ~100-500m range, 120 duplex channels, 1.2Mbit/s data
transmission, voice encryption, authentication, up to several 10000 user/km 2, used
in more than 40 countries
• 1992 - Start of GSM
• fully digital, 900MHz, 124 channels
• automatic location, hand-over, cellular
• roaming initially in Europe - now worldwide in more than 100 countries
• services: data with 9.6kbit/s, FAX, voice, ...
• Early 90’s - IS 54, IS 136, IS 95 in US in same spectrum as AMPS
• IS 54 is a TDMA digital standard that uses the old AMPS system for transmission.
• IS 136 is the new TDMA standard and
• IS 95 is the CDMA based standard. All 4 systems are in operation in the US!
• 1994 - GSM at 1800MHz (called Digital Cellular Service (DCS1800))
• smaller cells, supported by 11 countries
History & Development: Digital Wireless
Services
• 1996 - HiperLAN (High Performance Radio Local Area Network)
• ETSI, standardization of type 1: 5.15 - 5.30GHz, 23.5Mbit/s
• recommendations for type 2 and 3 (both 5GHz) and 4 (17GHz) as wireless ATM-networks (up to 155Mbit/s)
• 1997 - Wireless LANs
• many products with proprietary extensions out there already
• IEEE-Standard, 2.4 - 2.5GHz, 2Mbit/s
• 1998 - Specification of GSM successors
• UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) as the European proposal for IMT-2000
• 1998 - Specification for next generation CDMA starts
• Qualcomm starts work on wideband CDMA spec.
• 1999 - Specificatipn of IEEE802.11b
• increased BW to 11Mbit/s
• 2000 - Bluetooth Specification
• 1Mbit/s specification, single cell
• Work on 10Mbit/s spec. with multi cell capability initiated
 Fantastic Breakthrough Technology
• Wireless communication networks
• multiple networks “covering” the globe
• wold-wide deregulation and spectrum auctions
• standard communication systems and air link interfaces
• Portable information appliances
• laptops, notebooks, sub-notebooks
• hand-held computers
• PDAs and Smartphones
• Internet:
• TCP/IP & de-facto application protocols
• ubiquitous web content
New Forms of Computing
• Wireless Computing
• Nomadic Computing
• Distributed • Mobile Computing
Computing • Ubiquitous Computing
(Client/Server) • Pervasive Computing
• Invisible Computing
Nomadic, Mobile & Ubiquitous

No Fixed Wireless Wireless

Fixed
Network Wireless Network Network
Network
Network (A) (B)

Nomadic Computing Mobile Computing

Ubiquitous Computing
Impressive Wireless Infrastructure!

Global

Satellite
Suburban
Urban
In-Building

Micro-Cell Pico-Cell
Macro-Cell
dik ©
In-Room
(BlueTooth)
Mobile Computing
• Using:
• small size portable computers, hand-helds, MNC, and
other small wearable devices,
• To run stand-alone applications (or access remote
applications) via:
• wireless networks: IR, BlueTooth, W-LANs, Cellular, W-
Packet Data networks, SAT. etc.
• By:
• nomadic and mobile users (animals, agents, trains,
cars, cell phones, ….)
MOBILE COMPUTING
• Mobile computing can be defined as a computing
environment over physical mobility.
• The user of a mobile computing environment will be able to
access data, information or other logical objects from any
device in any network while on the move.
MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
• Mobile computing system allows a user to perform a
task from anywhere using a computing device in the
public (the Web), corporate (business information) and
personal information spaces (medical record, address
book).
 MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.

• Mobile computing is used in different contexts with

different names. The most common names are:
• Mobile Computing:
• The computing environment is mobile and moves along with the user.
• This is similar to the telephone number of a GSM (Global System for
Mobile communication) phone, which moves with the phone.
• The offline (local) and real-time (remote) computing environment will
move with the user.
• In real-time mode user will be able to use all his remote data and
services online.
MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
• Anywhere, Anytime Information: This is the generic definition of
ubiquity, where the information is available anywhere, all the time.
• Virtual Home Environment: (VHE) is defined as an environment in
a foreign network such that the mobile users can experience the
same computing experience as they have in their home or
corporate computing environment.
• For example, one would like to put ones room heater on when one is about
15 minutes away from home.
MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
• Nomadic Computing: The computing environment is nomadic and
moves along with the mobile user.
• This is true for both local and remote services.
• Pervasive Computing: A computing environment, which is
pervasive in nature and can be made available in any
environment.
• Ubiquitous Computing: A disappearing (nobody will notice its
presence) everyplace computing environment. User will be able to
use both local and remote services.
MOBILE COMPUTING Cont.
• Global Service Portability: Making a service portable and
available in every environment. Any service of any environment
will be available globally.
• Wearable Computers: Wearable computers are those computers
that may be adorned by humans like a hat, shoe or clothes
(these are wearable accessories).
 Mobile Computing Functions
• We can define a computing environment as mobile if it
supports one or more of the following characteristics:
• User Mobility:
• User should be able to move from one physical location to
another location and use the same service.
• The service could be in the home network or a remote network.
• Example could be a user moves from London to New York and
uses Internet to access the corporate application the same way
the user uses in the home office.
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.

• Network Mobility:
• User should be able to move from one network to another
network and use the same service.
• Example could be a user moves from Hong Kong to New Delhi
and uses the same GSM phone to access the corporate
application through WAP (Wireless Application Protocol). In
home network he uses this service over GPRS (General Packet
Radio Service) whereas in Delhi he accesses it over the GSM
network.
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.
• Bearer Mobility:
• User should be able to move from one bearer to another and use
the same service.
• Example could be a user was using a service through WAP bearer
in his home network in Bangalore. He moves to Coimbatore,
where WAP is not supported, he switch over to voice or SMS(Short
Message Service) bearer to access the same application.
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.
• Device Mobility:
• User should be able to move from one device to another and use
the same service.
• Example could be sales representatives using their desktop
computer in home office. During the day while they are on the
street they would like to use their Palmtop to access the
application.
Mobile Computing Functions Cont.
• Session Mobility:
• A user session should be able to move from one user-agent
environment to another.
• Example could be a user was using his service through a CDMA
(Code Division Multiple Access) IX network. The user entered
into the basement to park the car and got disconnected from his
CDMA network. User goes to home office and starts using the
desktop. The unfinished session in the CDMA device moves from
the mobile device to the desktop computer.
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.
• Service Mobility:
• User should be able to move from one service to another.
• Example could be a user is writing a mail. To complete the mail
user needs to refer to some other information. In a desktop PC,
user simply opens another service (browser) and moves
between them using the task bar. User should be able to switch
amongst services in small footprint wireless devices like in the
desktop.
 Mobile Computing Functions Cont.
• Host Mobility:
• The user device can be either a client or server.
• When it is a server or host, some of the complexities change.
• In case of host mobility the mobility of IP needs to be taken care
of.
Logical Functions of Mobile Computing
• The mobile computing functions can be logically divided
into following major segments:
1. User with device:
• The user device, this could be a fixed device like desktop computer in
office or a portable device like mobile phone.
• Example: laptop computers, desktop computers, fixed telephone,
mobile phones, digital TV with set-top box, palmtop computers, pocket
PCs, two way pagers, handheld terminals, etc.
Mobile Computing Functions
 Logical Functions of Mobile Computing

2. Network:
• Whenever a user is mobile, he will be using different networks at different places at
different time.
• Example: GSM, CDMA, iMode, Ethernet, Wireless LAN, Bluetooth etc.
Logical Functions of Mobile Computing
3. Gateway:
• This is required to interface different transport bearers.
• These gateways convert one specific transport bearer to another
transport bearer.
• Example: From a fixed phone (with voice interface) we access a service
by pressing different keys on the telephone. These keys generate DTMF
(Dual Tone Multi Frequency) signals.
• These analog signals are converted into digital data by the IVR
(Interactive Voice Response) gateway to interface with a computer
application.
• Other examples will be WAP gateway, SMS gateway etc.
 Logical Functions of Mobile Computing

4. Middleware:
• This is more of a function rather than a separate visible node.
• In the present context middleware handles the presentation and rendering of the
content on a particular device.
• It will also handle the security and personalization for different users
 Logical Functions of Mobile Computing

5. Content:
• This is the domain where the origin server and content is.
• This could be an application, system, or even an aggregation of systems.
• The content can be mass market, personal or corporate content.
• Origin server will have some means to accessing the database and the storage devices
Issues in Mobile Computing

1. Wireless systems operate by transmission

through space.

2. The channel over which communication takes

place is time varying (nodes move rapidly).

3. Interference between multiple users using a

common communication medium.
Challenges in mobile computing
• Mobility means changes
• Hardware
• Lighter, smaller, energy management, user interface
• Low bandwidth, high bandwidth variability
• Kbit/s to Mbit/s, bandwidth fluctuation
• Security risk
• Devices more vulnerable, endpoint authentication harder
• Heterogeneous network
• Different devices, interfaces and protocols
• Location awareness
• Locality adaptation
• Higher loss-rates, higher delays, more jitter
• Connection setup time, hand-off
• Restrictive regulations of frequencies
• Frequencies have to be coordinated
Wireless Communication Devices
• Mobile – (Eg. Cell phones, radio transceivers mounted on cars,
aircrafts etc)

• Or

• Stationary – (Eg. Base Stations (BTS/BS) of cellular networks)

Signals
• Signals are physical representation of data.
• In a communication system, Data is exchanged through signals.
• Physical layer of ISO/OSI reference model converts the data (bits) into signals and
vice versa
• In a wireless channel, signals are transmitted via electromagnetic radiations which
are analogue in nature.
• The most interesting types of signals for radio transmission are periodic signals,
especially sine waves as carriers.
• The general function of sine wave is :
A simple Wireless network model
Simple wireless network model
•End-systems, such as the PDA and computer in the example, need a full
protocol stack comprising the application layer, transport layer, network layer,
data link layer, and physical layer.
•Intermediate systems, such as the interworking unit, do not necessarily need
all of the layers.
•Physical layer: This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is
responsible for the conversion of a stream of bits into signals that can be
transmitted on the sender side. The physical layer of the receiver then
transforms the signals back into a bit stream. For wireless communication, the
physical layer is responsible for frequency selection, generation of the carrier
frequency, signal detection (although heavy interference may disturb the
signal), modulation of data onto a carrier frequency and (depending on the
transmission scheme) encryption.
Simple wireless network model cntd..
• Data link layer: The main tasks of this layer include accessing the medium,
multiplexing of different data streams, correction of transmission errors,
and synchronization (i.e., detection of a data frame).
• Network layer: This third layer is responsible for routing packets through a
network or establishing a connection between two entities over many
other intermediate systems. Important topics are addressing, routing,
device location, and handover between different networks.
• Transport layer: This layer is used in the reference model to establish an
end-to-end connection. Topics like quality of service, flow and congestion
control are relevant, especially if the transport protocols known from the
Internet, TCP and UDP, are to be used over a wireless link.
Simple wireless network model cntd..
• Application layer: Finally, the applications (complemented by
additional layers that can support applications) are situated
on top of all transmission oriented layers. Topics of interest
in this context are service location, support for multimedia
applications, adaptive applications that can handle the large
variations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access
to the world wide web using a portable device. Very
demanding applications are video (high data rate) and
interactive gaming (low jitter, low latency).
The Cellular Concept
• Cell Shape
• Actual cell/Ideal cell
• Signal Strength
• Handoff Region
• Cell Capacity
• Traffic theory
• Erlang B and Erlang C
• Cell Structure
• Frequency Reuse
• Reuse Distance
• Cochannel Interference
• Cell Splitting
• Cell Sectoring
INTRODUCTION

• Early mobile radio system was to achieve a large coverage areas by

using high powered transmitter with an antenna mounted on a tall
tower
• In this case it is impossible to reuse those same frequencies throughout
the system
• Since any attempts to achieve frequency reuse would result in
interference
Cont..
• Cellular concept is a system level idea which calls for replacing
a single , high power transmitter with low power small
transmitters with each providing coverage to only a small
portion of service area
• Each base station is allocated a portion of total no of channels
available to entire system
• Nearby base station are assigned different groups of channels
so that all the available channels are assigned to a relatively
small no. of neighboring base stations
• Nearby BS are assigned different groups of channel so that
interference bt. BS is minimized
 I. Introduction
• Goals of a Cellular System
• High capacity
• Large coverage area
• Efficient use of limited spectrum
• Large coverage area - Bell system in New York City had early mobile radio
• Single Tx, high power, and tall tower
• Low cost
• Large coverage area - Bell system in New York City had 12 simultaneous channels for 1000
square miles
• Small # users
• Poor spectrum utilization
• What are possible ways we could increase the number of channels available in a
cellular system?
 Cell Shape

R
R
R
Cell
R R

(a) Ideal cell (b) Actual cell (c) Different cell models
Impact of Cell Shape and Radius on
Service Characteristics
THE CELLULAR CONCEPT
Cluster of 7 cells

Cells

•seven groups of channel from A to G

•footprint of a cell - actual radio coverage
•omni-directional antenna v.s. directional antenna
• Cells labeled with the same letter use the same
group of channels.
• Cell Cluster: group of N cells using complete set of
available channels
• Many base stations, lower power, and shorter towers
• Small coverage areas called “cells”
• Each cell allocated a % of the total number of
available channels
• Nearby (adjacent) cells assigned different channel
groups
• to prevent interference between neighboring base
stations and mobile users
• Same frequency channels may be reused by cells a
“reasonable” distance away
• reused many times as long as interference between same
channel (co-channel) cells is < acceptable level
• As frequency reuse↑ → # possible simultaneous
users↑→ # subscribers ↑→ but system cost ↑ (more
towers)
• To increase number of users without increasing radio
frequency allocation, reduce cell sizes (more base
stations) ↑→ # possible simultaneous users ↑
• The cellular concept allows all mobiles to be
manufactured to use the same set of freqencies

• *** A fixed # of channels serves a large # of users by

reusing channels in a coverage area ***
 Frequency Reuse

F7 F2

F7 F2 F6 F1
F1 F3

F6 F1
F1 F3 F5 F4 F7 F2

F5 F4 F7 F2 F6 F1
F1 F3

F6 F1
F1 F3 F5 F4
Re
u
se

F5 F4
d ist

Fx: Set of frequency

an
ce
D

7 cell reuse cluster

 FREQUENCY REUSE
• Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within
a small geographic area called a cell.
• Neighboring cells are assigned different channel groups.
• By limiting the coverage area to within the boundary of the cell, the
channel groups may be reused to cover different cells.
• Keep interference levels within tolerable limits.
• Frequency reuse or frequency planning

“The design process of selecting and allocating channel

groups for all of the cellular base station within a system is
FREQUENCY REUSE/PLANNING”
II. Frequency Reuse/Planning

• Design process of selecting & allocating channel groups of cellular

base stations
• Two competing/conflicting objectives:
1) maximize frequency reuse in specified area
2) minimize interference between cells
• Cells
• base station antennas designed to cover specific cell area
• hexagonal cell shape assumed for planning
• simple model for easy analysis → circles leave gaps
• actual cell “footprint” is amorphous (no specific shape)
• where Tx successfully serves mobile unit
• base station location
• cell center → omni-directional antenna (360° coverage)
• not necessarily in the exact center (can be up to R/4 from the ideal location)
cell corners → sectored or directional antennas on 3 corners with 120°
coverage.
• very common
• Note that what is defined as a “corner” is somewhat flexible → a
sectored antenna covers 120° of a hexagonal cell.
• So one can define a cell as having three antennas in the center or
antennas at 3 corners.
 Reuse Distance

R Cluster
• For hexagonal cells, the reuse
distance is given by
F7 F2
D  3N R
F6 F1
F1 F3
where R is cell radius and N is the
reuse pattern (the cluster size or the
F5 F4 F7 F2 number of cells per cluster).

F6 F1 F3 • Reuse factor is
F1
D
Re

q   3N
us
ed

F5 F4
R
ist
an
ce
D
 Reuse Distance (Cont’d)

 The cluster size or the number of cells per cluster is given by

N  i 2  ij  j 2 j

where i and j are integers. 60o

 N = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 13, 16, 19, 21, 28, …, etc.

The popular value of N being 4 and 7.
 Reuse Distance (Cont’d)

j=1

j=1 i=2
i=2 j=1
j direction
i=2
60° i=2
i direction j=1
j=1
1 2 3… i i=2 i=2
j=1
(a) Finding the center of an adjacent cluster (b) Formation of a cluster for N = 7
using integers i and j (direction of i and j can with i=2 and j=1
be interchanged).
 Reuse Distance (Cont’d)

j=2 i=3 j=2 i=3

j=2
j=2 i=2 j=2
i=2
j=2
i=3
i=2 i=3
i=2 j=2
i=2 j=2
j=2 i=2 j=2 i=3 j=2 i=3

j=2

(c) A cluster with N =12 with i=2 and j=2 (d) A Cluster with N = 19 cells with i=3
and j=2
CELLULAR NETWORK

segmentation of the area into cells

possible radio coverage of the cell

idealized shape of the cell

cell

• use of several carrier frequencies

• not the same frequency in adjoining cells
• cell sizes vary from some 100 m up to 35 km depending on user
density, geography, transceiver power etc.
• hexagonal shape of cells is idealized (cells overlap, shapes depend on
geography)
• if a mobile user changes cells
 handover of the connection to the neighbor cell
 Signal Strength
Signal strength
(in dB)

Cell i Cell j
-60 -60
-70 -70
-80 -80
-90
-90 -100
-100

Select cell i on left of boundary Select cell j on right of boundary

Ideal boundary
 Signal Strength
Signal strength
(in dB)

Cell i Cell j

-60
-70
-60
-80
-70
-90
-80
-90 -100
-100 Signal strength contours indicating actual cell tiling.
This happens because of terrain, presence of obstacles
and signal attenuation in the atmosphere.
 Handoff Region
Signal strength Signal strength
due to BSi due to BSj

Pi(x) Pj(x)

Pmin
BSi MS BSj
X1 X3 X5 Xth X4 X2

• By looking at the variation of signal strength from either base station it

is possible to decide on the optimum area where handoff can take place.
 Handoff Rate in a Rectangular
Since handoff can occur at sides R 1 and
R 2 of a cell
side H  R1  X 1 cos  X 2 sin    R2  X 1 sin   X 2 cos 
side
R2 where A=R 1 R 2 is the area and assuming it
X2  constant, differentiate with respect to R1 (or R
X1 2) gives
R1 X 1 sin   X 2 cos 2 X 1 cos   X 2 sin 
 R
2
A R2  A
1 X 1 cos  X 2 sin  X 1 sin   X 2 cos 

Total handoff rate is

  2 A X cos   X sin   X
H 1 2 1
sin   X 2 cos 

H is minimized when =0, giving

R1 X 1
H  2 AX 1 X 2 and 
R2 X 2
 Cell Capacity
• Average number of MSs requesting service (Average arrival
rate): 
• Average length of time MS requires service (Average
holding time): T
• Offered load: a = T
e.g., in a cell with 100 MSs, on an average 30 requests are
generated during an hour, with average holding time T=360
seconds.
Then, arrival rate =30/3600 requests/sec.
A channel kept busy for one hour is defined as one Erlang (a),
i.e.,
30 Calls 360 Sec
a   3 Erlangs
3600 Sec call
 Cell Capacity

• Average arrival rate during a short interval t is given by  t

• Assuming Poisson distribution of service requests, the
probability P(n, t) for n calls to arrive in an interval of
length t is given by

P ( n, t ) 
  t n
e  t
n!
 Assuming  to be the service rate, probability of each call
to terminate during interval t is given by  t.
Thus, probability of a given call requires service for time t
or less is given by

S (t )  1  e   t
 Erlang B and Erlang C
• Probability of an arriving call being blocked is
aS 1
B S , a    S k
, Erlang B formula
S! a

k 0 k !

where S is the number of channels in a group.

 Probability of an arriving call being delayed is
aS
C S, a 
 S  1 ! S  a 
,
S S 1 i Erlang C formula
a a

 S  1 ! S  a  i 0 i !
where C(S, a) is the probability of an arriving call being delayed with
a load and S channels.
 Efficiency (Utilization)
Traffic nonblocked
Efficiency 
Capacity
Erlangs  portions of nonrouted traffic

Number of trunks (channels)
• Example: for previous example, if S=2,
then
B(S, a) = 0.6, ------ Blocking probability,
i.e., 60% calls are blocked.
Total number of rerouted calls = 30 x 0.6 = 18
Efficiency = 3(1-0.6)/2 = 0.6
 Cell Structure

F7 F2
F1 F2 F1 F2
F6 F1 F3
F1 F2 F3
F3 F3 F4
F5 F4

(a) Line Structure (b) Plan Structure

Note: Fx is set of frequency, i.e., frequency group.

 Cochannel Interference
First tier cochannel
Second tier cochannel Base Station
Base Station

R
D6
D5
D1

D4 Mobile Station
D2

D3

Serving Base Station

Worst Case of Cochannel Interference

D6
R
D5
D1

D4
Mobile Station
D2

D3

Serving Base Station Co-channel Base Station

 Cochannel Interference

 Cochannel interference ratio is given by

C Carrier C
  M
I Interferen ce
 Ik k 1

where I is co-channel interference and M is the maximum

number of co-channel interfering cells.
For M = 6, C/I is given by

C C where  is the propagation path loss slope

= -g
I M
æ Dk ö and  = 2~5.
å= çè R ÷ø
k 1
Cell Splitting

Large cell
(low density)

Small cell
(high
density)
Smaller cell
(higher density)

Depending on traffic patterns the

smaller cells may be
activated/deactivated in order to
efficiently use cell resources.
 Cell Sectoring by Antenna Design

c
c
120o 120o
a
b a
b

(a). Omni (b). 120o sector (c). 120o sector (alternate)

d f
90o e 60o a
a
c
d b
b c

(d). 90o sector (e). 60o sector

 Sectoring
• Decrease the co-channel interference and keep the cell radius
R unchanged
– Replacing single omni-directional antenna by several directional
antennas
– Radiating within a specified sector
 Cell Sectoring by Antenna Design

 Placing directional transmitters at corners where three

adjacent cells meet

C
X
A
Worst Case for Forward Channel Interference in
Three-sectors

BS
D + 0.7R
BS
MS
R
BS
D

BS
C C
 
I q   q  0.7  
q  D/R
Worst Case for Forward Channel Interference in
Three-sectors (Cont’d)

BS
D

D’ BS
MS

R
BS
D

BS
C C
 
I q   q  0.7  
q  D/ R
Worst Case for Forward Channel
Interference in Six-sectors

MS
BS
R

D +0.7R

C C

I  q  0.7 

BS

q  D/R
 Channel Assignment Strategies
• Frequency reuse scheme
– increases capacity
– minimize interference
• Channel assignment strategy
– fixed channel assignment
– dynamic channel assignment
• Fixed channel assignment
– each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channel
– any new call attempt can only be served by the unused channels
– the call will be blocked if all channels in that cell are occupied
• Dynamic channel assignment
– channels are not allocated to cells permanently.
– allocate channels based on request.
– reduce the likelihood of blocking, increase capacity.
GSM
• One of the most popular standards for mobile phones in the
world.
• Formerly: Groupe Spéciale Mobile (founded 1982)
• Now: Global System for Mobile Communication
• European standard, moving to North America
• More than one billion people use GSM phones as of 2005,
making GSM the dominant mobile phone system worldwide
with about 70% of the world's market.
• GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile phones
connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity.
• One of the key features of GSM is the Subscriber Identity
Module (SIM), commonly known as a SIM card. The SIM is a
detachable smartcard containing the user's subscription
information and phonebook.
GSM
• More than 800 million end users in 190 countries and
representing over 70% of today's digital wireless
market.
• source: GSM Association
• Israel
• Orange uses GSM
• Pelephone and Cellcom are about to use GSM
 Network Structure
• Cell
A cell is the basic unit of a cellular system and is
defined as the radio coverage given by one BTS.

89
 Network Structure
LOCATION AREA
A LA is defined as a group of cells.Within the
network, a subsriber’s location is known by the LA
which they are in.
The identity of the LA in which an MS is currently
located is stored in the VLR. (LAI)
Network Structure

• MSC Service Area

An MSC Service Area is made up of LAs and
represents the geographical part of the network
controlled by one MSC.
Network Structure
• PLMN SERVICE AREA
A PLMN service area is the entire set of cells served by one network
operator
and is defined as the area in which an operator offers radio coverage
and access to its network.
Network Structure

• GSM SERVICE AREA

The GSM service area is the entire geographical
area in which a subscriber can gain access to a
GSM network.
Relation between areas in GSM

Location
CellArea
Location Area
MSC Service Area
PLMN Service Area
GSM Service Area
Into the architecture
• Mobile phone is identified by SIM card.
• Key feature of the GSM
• Has the “secret” for authentication
Into the architecture(2)
• BTS – houses the radiotransceivers of the cell and handles the radio-
link protocols with the mobile
• BSC – manages radio resources (channel setup, handover) for one or
more BTSs
Into the architecture(3)
• MSC – Mobile Switching Center
• The central component of the network
• Like a telephony switch plus everything for a mobile subscriber:
registration, authentication, handovers, call routing, connection to
fixed networks.
• Each switch handles dozens of cells
Into the architecture(4)
• HLR – database of all users + current location. One per network
• VLR – database of users + roamers in some geographic area. Caches
the HLR
• EIR – database of valid equipment
• AuC – Database of users’ secret keys
Mobile Station

GSM MSs consist of:

• Mobile Equipment
• Subscriber Identity Module

99
Functions of Mobile Station
• Voice and data transmission & receipt
• Frequency and time synchronization
• Monitoring of power and signal quality of the
surrounding cells
• Provision of location updates even during inactive
state
Mobile Station

• Can receive, store, send SMS up to 160 characters.

• MS identified by unique IMEI shown on pressing
*#06#.
• Power levels of 20W, 8W, 5W, 2W and .8W
SIM
SIM has microprocessor and memory.
Fixed data stored for the subscription:
• IMSI,
• Authentication Key, Ki
• Security Algorithms:kc,A3,A8
• PIN & PUK
Network Identities
• IMEI
• MSISDN
• IMSI
• TMSI
• MSRN
IMEI
• International Mobile Equipment Identity
• The IMEI is an unique code allocated to each mobile equipment. It is
checked in the EIR.
• IMEI check List
·White List
·Grey List
·Black List
MSISDN
• Mobile Station ISDN Number
• The MSISDN is registered in the telephone directory and used by the calling party
for dialing.
• MSISDN shall not exceed 15 digits.
• NDC--National Destination Code
• SN--Subscriber Number

1 to 3 digits Variable Variable

CC NDC SN
 IMSI
• International mobile subscriber Identity
• The IMSI is an unique identity which is used internationally and used
within the network to identify the mobile subscribers.
• The IMSI is stored in the subscriber identity module (SIM), the HLR,
VLR database.
Temporary Mobile subscriber Identity

• TMSI is a temporary IMSI no. made known to an MS at

registration.
• The VLR assigns a TMSI to each mobile subscribers
entering the VLR area.
• Assigned only after successful authentication.
MSRN
Mobile Station Roaming Number
• The MSRN is used in the GMSC to set up a connection to the visited MSC/VLR.
• MSRN--is a temporary identity which is assigned during the establishment of a
call to a roaming subs.
BASE STATION SYSTEM (BSS)

MSC/VLR

BSC BSC

BSC
BSS
BSS

n BTS n BTS
FUNCTIONS OF BTS (Base Transceiver Station)

• Radio resources
• Signal Processing
• Signaling link management
• Synchronization
• Local maintenance handling
• Functional supervision and Testing
FUNCTIONS OF BSC

• Radio Resource management

• Internal BSC O&M
• Handling of MS connections
MSC-BSS Configurations

A BTS
MSC BSS A-bis BTS BTS

BSC BTS BTS

A-bis

BTS
Switching System (SS)
SS7 Signalling
Traffic Path VLR D

C HLR AUC
F
E
Other
EIR A
MSC MSC

(PSTN)

(BSS)
MSC Functions
• Switcing and call routing
• Charging
• Service provisioning
• Communication with HLR
• Communication with VLR
• Communication with other MSCs
• Control of connected BSCs
MSC Functions
• Echo canceller operation control

• Signaling interface to databases like HLR, VLR.

• Gateway to SMS between SMS centers and subscribers

• Handle interworking function while working as GMSC

VISITOR LOCATION REGISTER (VLR)

• It contains data of all mobiles roaming in its area.

• One VLR may be incharge of one or more LA.

• VLR is updated by HLR on entry of MS its area.

• VLR assigns TMSI which keeps on changing.

Data in VLR
• IMSI & TMSI
• MSISDN
• MSRN.
• Location Area
• Supplementary service parameters
• MS category
• Authentication Key
Home Location Register(HLR)

• Reference store for subscriber’s parameters, numbers, authentication &

Encryption values.

• Current subscriber status and associated VLR.

• Both VLR and HLR can be implemented in the

same equipment in an MSC.

• one PLMN may contain one or several HLR.

Home Location Register(HLR)
• Permanent data in HLR
• Data stored is changed only by commands.

• IMSI, MS-ISDN number.

• Category of MS ( whether pay phone or not )

• Roaming restriction ( allowed or not ).

• Supplementary services like call forwarding

Home Location Register(HLR)
• Temporary data in HLR
• The data changes from call to call & is dynamic

• MSRN

• RAND /SRES and Kc

• VLR address , MSC address.

• Messages waiting data used for SMS

SIM
• It includes numbers which provide definition of user for network
• It also includes reachable networks list
Location Update
Procedure of Location Update
SET UP CALLS IN GSM NETWORK
• +90 400 398 0102
• MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN
• CC : Country Code
• NDC : National Destination Code
• SN : Subscriber Number
• GMSC : Gateway Mobile Services Switching Center
REACH CALLS FROM PSTN TO GSM
NETWORK
GUİDE CALL TO GSM NETWORK
CONTENT OF HLR
• MSISDN
• IMSI
• They provide the right call, right service
IMSI = MCC+MNC+MSIN
MCC = Mobile Country Code
MNC = Mobile Network Code
MSIN = Mobile Sucscriber Identification Number
• MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number)
MSRN = CC + NDC + SN
CC : Country Code
NDC : National Destination Code
SN : Subscriber Number
2.MSC wants to MSRN FROM HLR(Left Photo)
HLR gives MSRN to MSC for startin call(Right Photo)
PROCEDURE OF CALL SET UP
Procedure
• The number is MSISDN
• PSTN central analyse the MSISDN and connect to GMSC
• GMSC analyse the MSISDN and send message HLR
• HLR control databases and thrust into the user’s location
• HLR query MSC/VLR
• MSC/VLR produce MSRN
• MSC/VLR send MSRN to HLR, HLR send it to
GMSC
• GMSC realise MSC/VLR for forwarding call
• MSC/VLR gets MSRN and starts to call
• MSC/VLR starts to paging process in location area.The
user is found with paging signal and call set up
PROCEDURE OF CALL SET UP
FROM MOBİLE USER
EQUIPMENT IDENTITY REGISTER ( EIR )

• This data base stores IMEI for all registered mobile equipments and is unique to
every ME.

• Only one EIR per PLMN.

• White list : IMEI, assigned to valid ME.

• Black list : IMEI reported stolen
• Gray list : IMEI having problems like faulty software, wrong make of equipment
etc.
 AUthentication Center (AUC)

To authenticate the subs. attempting to use a

network.
AUC is connected to HLR which provides it
with authentication parameters and ciphering
keys used to ensure network security.
 AUC Functions
To perform subscriber
authentication and to establish
ciphering procedures on the radio
link between the network and MS.
 AUC Functions
Information provided is called a
TRIPLET consists of:

1. RAND(non predictable random number)

2. SRES(Signed response)

3. Kc(ciphering key)
Operations and Maintenance Centre
OMC
The centralized operation of the various units in
the system and functions needed to maintain the
subsystems.

Dynamic monitoring and controlling of the

network
Functions Of OMC
-O&M data function

-Configuration management

--Fault report and alarm handling

-Performance supervision/management

-Storage of system software and data

GSM Overview
OMC, EIR, HLR
AUC GMSC
NSS fixed network
with OSS
VLR MSC MSC
VLR

BSC

BSC
RSS (Radio Subsystem)
NSS (Network and switching subsystem)
OSS (Operation Subsystem)
MS (Mobile Station)
BTS (Base Transceiver Station)
RSS MS BSC (Base Station Controller)
MS MSC (Mobile Services Switching Center)
GMSC (Gateway MSC)
HLR (Home Location Register)
BTS VLR (Visitor Location Register)
EIR (Equipment Identity Register)
AUC (Authentication Center )
OMC (Operation and Maintenance Center )
GSM System Architecture
GSM System Architecture
Channels on Air Interface
 The GSM radio interface

• The radio interface is the interface between the mobile

stations and the fixed infrastructure. It is one of the most
important interfaces of the GSM system.
• One of the main objectives of GSM is roaming. Therefore,
in order to obtain a complete compatibility between
mobile stations and networks of different manufacturers
and operators, the radio interface must be completely
defined.
----
The spectrum efficiency depends on the radio interface and the
transmission, more particularly in aspects such as the capacity of the
system and the techniques used in order to decrease the interference and
to improve the frequency reuse scheme.
The specification of the radio interface has then an important influence on
the spectrum efficiency.
Frequency allocation
Two frequency bands, of 25 MHz each one, have been allocated for the GSM
system:
The band 890-915 MHz has been allocated for the uplink direction
(transmitting from the mobile station to the base station).
The band 935-960 MHz has been allocated for the downlink direction
(transmitting from the base station to the mobile station).
GSM Band 
 
Air Interface: MS to BTS
• Uplink/Downlink of 25MHz
• 890 -915 MHz for Up link
• 935 - 960 MHz for Down link
• Combination of frequency division and time
division multiplexing
• FDMA
• 124 channels of 200 kHz
• TDMA
• Burst

• Modulation used
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
 Definition of Channels

Logical Channel
Type of information to be transmitted e.g., traffic or control logical channels.
Transport Channel
How and with what format data is transmitted through physical links.
Physical Channel
Unit of radio resource of a radio system e.g., frequency band, time slot, code, etc.
RF Channel
Fixed frequency band of a radio system.

 The MAC sub-layer is responsible for mapping logical channels onto transport
channels.
 The physical layer is responsible for mapping transport channels onto physical
Channels.
 GSM Physical Channel

• GSM physical channel relates to the recurrence of one

burst in every frame.
• This channel is characterized by both its frequency and
its position within the TDMA frame.
Number of channels in GSM
• Freq. Carrier: 200 kHz
• TDMA: 8 time slots per freq carrier

• No. of carriers = 25 MHz / 200 kHz = 125

• Max no. of user channels = 125 * 8 = 1000

• Considering guard bands = 124 * 8 = 992 channels

GSM Frame Hierarchy
 GSM Logical Channel
• The logical channels consist of the information carried
over the physical channel.
• There are two major categories of GSM Logical
channels
1. Traffic channels
2. Control channels.
 GSM Physical Channel (in detail)
• A single GSM Carrier is divided into eight timeslots.
• Therefore can support up to eight MS subscribers
simultaneously.
• The timeslots are arranged in sequence and are
conventionally numbered 0 to 7.
• Each repetition of this sequence is called a “TDMA
frame”.
 GSM Physical Channel Cntd....
BURST:
 The information carried in one timeslot is called a “burst”.
 The timing of the burst transmissions to and from the
mobiles is critical.
 Each time slot of a TDMA frame lasts for duration of
156.25 bit periods or
 576.9 µsec or 0.576 ms
 so a frame takes 4.615 ms
 GSM’s data transmission rate is 270.83 kbps per carrier
frequency.
 Therefore one bit duration is 3.692 µsec
Burst structure
• As it has been stated before, the burst is the unit in time of a TDMA system. Four different
types of bursts can be distinguished in GSM:
• The frequency-correction burst is used on the FCCH. It has the same length as the normal
burst but a different structure.
• The synchronization burst is used on the SCH. It has the same length as the normal burst but
a different structure.
• The random access burst is used on the RACH and is shorter than the normal burst.
• The normal burst is used to carry speech or data information. It lasts approximately 0.577 ms
and has a length of 156.25 bits.
 GSM Logical Channels
• There are two main groups of logical channels, traffic
channels and control channels.
Run over a physical channel, but not necessarily in all its
time slots
Have to be managed: set up, maintenance, tear down.
Traffic & Control channels are further classified into
groups.
GSM Traffic Channels
 Traffic Channels
• A traffic channel (TCH) is used to carry speech and
data traffic.
• TCHs for the uplink and downlink are separated in time
by 3 burst periods.
• Therefore MS does not have to transmit & receive
simultaneously, thus simplifying the electronics.
• In addition to these full-rate TCHs, there are also half-
rate TCHs defined.
• Half-rate TCHs will effectively double the capacity of a
system at the cost of voice quality.
 Traffic Channels Cntd....
• Traffic channels can carry either
1. Speech or
2. Data
• Speech channels are supported by two different
methods of coding known as
1. Full Rate (FR)
2. Enhanced Full Rate (EFR)
 Traffic Channels Cntd....
• Enhanced Full Rate coding provides a speech service
that has improved voice quality from the original Full
Rate speech coding.
• EFR employs a new speech coding algorithm and
additions to the full rate channel coding algorithm to
accomplish this improved speech service.
• it is only supported by Phase 2+ mobiles onwards.
 Traffic Channels Cntd....
Full Rate TCH Half Rate
TCH
TCH/FR TRAFFIC TCH/HR
TCH/F 9.6
TCH/F 4.8
CHANNELS TCH/H4.8
TCH/H2.4
TCH/F 2.4
Full Rate Traffic Channels Half Rate Traffic Channels
Name Type Data Rate NAME Type Data Rate

TCH/FR Speech 22.8 kbps TCH/HR Speech 11.4 kbps

TCH/F9.6 Data 22.8 kbps TCH/H9.6 Data 11.4 kbps

TCH/F4.8 Data 22.8 kbps TCH/H4.8 Data 11.4 kbps

TCH/F2.4 Data 22.8 kbps

GSM Control Channels
 GSM CONTROL CHANNELS (CCH)

• There are three main control channels in the GSM

system
1. Broadcast Channel (BCH)
2. Common Control Channel (CCCH)
3. Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)

• Each control channel consists of several logical

channels having different Control Functions.
 Broadcast Channels (BCH)
• The broadcast channel operates on the forward link of a
specific ARFCNs
• It transmits data only in (TS 0) of certain ARFCNs.
Other TSs are available for TCHs.
• The BCH provides synchronization for all mobiles
within the cell.
• It is also monitored by mobiles in neighboring cells so
that the received power and MAHO decisions can be
made by out-of-cell users.
 i) BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNEL (BCCH)

• BCCH is a forward control channel.

• information such as cell and network identity.
• The BCCH is transmitted by the BTS at all times.
• The RF carrier used to transmit the BCCH is referred to as
the BCCH carrier.
• Information on BCCH is monitored by the MS periodically
(at least every 30 secs), when switched on & not in a call.
• The BCCH is transmitted at constant power at all times,
and its signal strength is measured by all MS which may
seek to use it.
 BROADCAST CONTROL CHANNEL Cntd….

• BCCH Carries the following information (this is only a partial

list):
1. Location Area Identity (LAI).
2. List of neighboring cells which should be monitored by the
MS.
3. List of frequencies used in the cell.
4. Cell identity.
5. Power control indicator.
6. DTX permitted.
7. Access control (for example, emergency calls, call barring).
8. CBCH description.
9. List of Channels currently in use within a cell.
ii) FREQUENCY CORRECTION CHANNEL
(FCCH)

• FCCH is a forward control channel.

• It is transmitted on same ARFCN i.e. of BCCH
• The FCCH allows each subscriber unit to synchronize
its internal frequency standard (local oscillator) to
exact frequency of the base station
iii) SYNCHRONIZATION CHANNEL (SCH)

• It’s also a Downlink Channel.

• SCH allows each mobile to frame synchronize with the base
station.
• It transmits two Important Information
1. Frame number.
2. Base Site Identity Code (BSIC).
• The frame number (FN) ranges from 0 to 2715647.
• The BSIC is uniquely assigned to each BTS in a GSM system.
• The BS issues course timing advancement command to the
mobile station over the SCH
COMMON CONTROL CHANNEL (CCCH)

• The common control channels occupy TS 0 of every

GSM frame that is not otherwise used by the BCH.
• CCCH consist of three different channels.
These channels are described in following slides
 i) PAGING CHANNEL (PCH)

• It exists only on downlink (Forward channel).

• The paging channel (PCH) provides paging signals to
all mobiles.
• notifies a specific mobile of an incoming call which
originates from the PSTN.
• The PCH transmit the IMSI of the target subscriber,
along with a request for acknowledgment from the
mobile unit.
• the PCH is also used to provide cell broadcast ASCII
text messages to all subscribers, as part of the SMS
feature of GSM
 ii) RANDOM ACCESS CHANNEL (RACH)

• The RACH is the only reverse link (uplink) channel.

• MS acknowledges a page from the PCH on RACH.
• RACH is also used by mobiles to originate a call.
• The RACH used a slotted ALOHA access scheme.
• At the BTS, every frame (even the idle frame) will
accept RACH transmissions from mobiles during TS 0
 iii) ACCESS GRANT CHANNEL (AGCH).

• AGCH is used by the BS to provide forward link

communication.
• The AGCH is used by the BS to respond to a RACH
sent by a mobile station.
• It carries data for MS to operate in a particular
physical channel (time slot and ARFCN).
• The AGCH is the final CCCH message sent by the
base station before a subscriber is moved off the
control channel.
iv) CELL BROADCAST CHANNEL (CBCH)

• CBCH is used to transmit messages to be broadcast

to all MSs within a cell.
• it is considered a common channel because the
messages can be received by all mobiles in the cell.
DEDICATED CONTROL CHANNELS
(DCCH)

• There are three types of Dedicated Control Channels

in GSM.
• like Traffic Channels they are bidirectional.
• same format and function in both the forward and
reverse links.
• DCCHs may exist in any time slot and any ARFCN
except TS 0 of the BCH ARFCN.
 i) STAND-ALONE DEDICATED
COTROL CHANNEL (SDCCH)

• The SDCCH carries signaling data following the

connection of the MS with the BTS just before a TCH
assignment.
• The SDCCH ensures the Connection b/w MS and BS
during the verification of subscriber unit & allocation
of resources for the MS.
• It is a dedicated point-to-point signaling channel
which is not tied to the existence of a TCH (stand-
alone),
 i) STAND-ALONE DEDICATED
COTROL CHANNEL (SDCCH)……

• The SDCCH is requested from the MS via the RACH

and assigned via the AGCH.
• The SDCCH can be thought of as an intermediate and
temporary channel.
• A SDCCH may also be used for
1. call setup,
2. Authentication
3. location updating
4. SMS point to point
5. e-Fax
 ii) SLOW-ASSOCITED CONTROL CHANNEL
(SACCH)

• The SACCH is always associated with a TCH or a

SDCCH and maps onto the same physical channel.
• Each ARFCN systematically carries SACCH data for
all of its current users.
• On the downlink, SACCH sends slow but regularly
changing control information to the mobile station.
1. transmit power level instruction.
2. and specific timing advance instruction.
 ii) SLOW-ASSOCITED CONTROL CHANNEL
(SACCH)…..

• On reverse channel SACCH sends

1. received signal strength (form Serving BTS).
2. quality of the TCH.
3. BCH measurement results (from neighboring cells)
• The SACCH is transmitted during the 13th frame of
every speech dedicated control channel
 iii) FAST-ASSOCIATED CONTROL CHANNEL
(FACCH)

• FACCH carries urgent messages, and contains

essentially the same type of information as the
SDCCH.
• A FACCH is assigned whenever a SDCCH has not
been dedicated for a particular user and there is an
urgent message (e.g. handoff request).
• The FACCH gains access to a time slot by “stealing”
frames from the traffic channel to which it is assigned
GSM Radio Interface - TDMA/FDMA
935-960 MHz
124 channels (200 kHz)
downlink

c y
en
qu
890-915 MHz

fre
124 channels (200 kHz)
uplink
higher GSM frame structures
time

GSM TDMA frame

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
4.615 ms

GSM time-slot (normal burst)

guard guard
space tail user data S Training S user data tail space
3 bits 57 bits 1 26 bits 1 57 bits 3
546.5 µs
577 µs
GSM hierarchy of frames hyperframe
0 1 2 ... 2045 2046 2047 3 h 28 min 53.76 s

superframe
0 1 2 ... 48 49 50
6.12 s
0 1 ... 24 25

multiframe
0 1 ... 24 25 120 ms

0 1 2 ... 48 49 50 235.4 ms

frame
0 1 ... 6 7 4.615 ms
slot
burst 577 µs
The process of hand-over
• When a mobile moves into a different cell while a conversation is in
progress, the MSC automatically transfers the call to a new channel
belonging to the new base station.
• This handoff operation not only involves identifying a new base
station, but also requires that the voice and control signals be
allocated to channels associated with the new base station.
• Processing handoffs is an important task in any cellular radio system.
• Many handoff strategies prioritize handoff requests over call initiation
requests when allocating unused channels in a cell site.
 Handoff
• When a mobile user is engaged in conversation, the MS is connected
to a BS via a radio link.
• If the mobile user moves to the coverage area of another BS, the radio
link to the old BS is eventually disconnected, and a radio link to the
new BS should be established to continue the conversation.
• This process is variously referred to as automatic link transfer,
handover, or handoff.
Handover / Handoff
• Occurs as a mobile moves into a different cell during an existing call,
or when going from one cellular system into another.
• It must be user transparent, successful and not too frequent.
• Not only involves identifying a new BS, but also requires that the voice and
control signals be allocated to channels associated with the new BS.
Hard handoff between the MS and BSs.
 Hard handover
• The definition of a hard handover or handoff is one where an existing
connection must be broken before the new one is established.
• One example of hard handover is when frequencies are changed.
• As the mobile will normally only be able to transmit on one frequency at a
time, the connection must be broken before it can move to the new
channel where the connection is re-established. This is often termed and
inter-frequency hard handover. While this is the most common form of
hard handoff, it is not the only one.
• It is also possible to have intra-frequency hard handovers where the
frequency channel remains the same.
• Although there is generally a short break in transmission, this is normally
short enough not to be noticed by the user.
 Soft handover
• The new 3G technologies use CDMA where it is possible to have
neighbouring cells on the same frequency and this opens the
possibility of having a form of handover or handoff where it is not
necessary to break the connection.
• This is called soft handover or soft handoff, and it is defined as a
handover where a new connection is established before the old one is
released.
• In UMTS most of the handovers that are performed are intra-
frequency soft handovers.
 Softer handover
• The third type of hand over is termed a softer handover, or handoff. In
this instance a new signal is either added to or deleted from the
active set of signals.
• It may also occur when a signal is replaced by a stronger signal from a
different sector under the same base station.
• This type of handover or handoff is available within UMTS as well as
CDMA2000.
Handoffs
• GSM uses mobile assisted hand-off (MAHO). Signal strength
measurements are sent to the BS from the mobile.
• The MSC decides when to do a handoff and it informs the new BS and
the mobile.
• When a mobile switches to a new BS it sends a series of shortened
bursts to adjust its timing (giving the bS time to calculate it and send
it) and allow the new BS to synchronize its receiver to the arrival time
of the messages
4 types of handover
1
2 3 4
MS MS MS MS

BTS BTS BTS BTS

BSC BSC BSC

MSC MSC
 GSM handoffs
• Intra-BSS: if old and new BTSs are attached to same base station
• MSC is not involved
• Intra-cell handover: Within a cell, narrow-band interference could make transmission at a certain frequency
impossible. The BSC could then decide to change the carrier frequency (scenario 1).

Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover: This is a typical handover scenario. The mobile station moves from one cell to
another, but stays within the control of the same BSC. The BSC then performs a handover, assigns a new radio
channel in the new cell and releases the old one (scenario 2).

• Intra-MSC: if old and new BTSs are attached to different base stations but within same MSC
• As a BSC only controls a limited number of cells; GSM also has to perform handovers between cells controlled by
different BSCs. This handover then has to be controlled by the MSC (scenario 3).

• Inter-MSC: if MSCs are changed

• A handover could be required between two cells belonging to
different MSCs. Now both MSCs perform the handover together (scenario 4).
Handover decision
receive level receive level
BTSold BTSold

HO_MARGIN

MS MS

BTSold BTSnew
Handover procedure
MS BTSold BSCold MSC BSCnew BTSnew
measurement measurement
report result

HO decision
HO required HO request
resource allocation
ch. activation

HO command HO request ack ch. activation ack

HO command HO command
HO access
Link establishment

HO complete HO complete
clear command clear command
clear complete clear complete
GSM Intra-MSC handoff
1. Mobile station monitors signal quality and determines
handoff is required, sends signal measurements to
serving BSS
2. Serving BSS sends handoff request to MSC with ranked
list of qualified target BSSs
3. MSC determines that best candidate BSS is under its
control
4. MSC reserves a trunk to target BSS
5. Target BSS selects and reserves radio channels for new
connection, sends Ack to MSC
6. MSC notifies serving BSS to begin handoff, including new
radio channel assignment
GSM Intra-MSC handoff
7. Serving BSS forwards new radio channel assignment
to mobile station
8. Mobile station retunes to new radio channel, notifies
target BSS on new channel
9. Target BSS notifies MSC that handoff is detected
10.Target BSS and mobile station exchange messages to
synchronize transmission in proper timeslot
11.MSC switches voice connection to target BSS, which
responds when handoff is complete
12.MSC notifies serving BSS to release old radio traffic
channel
GSM Inter-MSC handoff
1. MS sends signal measurements to serving BSS
2. Serving BSS sends handoff request to MSC
3. Serving MSC determines that best candidate BSS is under
control of a target MSC and calls target MSC
4. Target MSC notifies its VLR to assign a TMSI
5. Target VLR returns TMSI
6. Target MSC reserves a trunk to target BSS
7. Target BSS selects and reserves radio channels for new
connection, sends Ack to target MSC
8. Target MSC notifies serving MSC that it is ready for
handoff
GSM Inter-MSC handoff
9. Serving MSC notifies serving BSS to begin handoff, including
new radio channel assignment
10.Serving BSS forwards new radio channel assignment to
mobile station
11.Mobile station retunes to new radio channel, notifies target
BSS on new channel
12.Target BSS notifies target MSC that handoff is detected
13.Target BSS and mobile station synchronize timeslot
14.Voice connection is switched to target BSS, which responds
when handoff is complete
15.Target MSC notifies serving MSC
16.Old network resources are released
Advantages of GSM
• GSM is mature, this maturity means a more stable network with
robust features.
• Less signal deterioration inside buildings.
• Ability to use repeaters
• The availability of Subscriber Identity Modules allows users to switch
networks and handsets at will.
• GSM covers virtually all parts of world so international roaming is not
a problem.
Disadvantages of GSM
• Pulse nature of transmission interferes with some electronics,
especially certain audio amplifiers.
• Intellectual property is concentrated among a few industry
participants, creating barriers to entry for new entrants and limiting
competition among phone manufacturers.
• GSM has a fixed maximum cell site range of 35 km, which is imposed
by technical limitations.
IS-95 / CDMA
Outline
• CDMA Definition
• IS95 – CDMA One
• WCDMA - UMTS
• Who uses it
• Sprint
• PN sequences / Orthogonal Vectors Example
• CDMA Benefits
CDMA
• CDMA – Code Division Multiple Access
• Fully digital wireless data transmission system
• Not designed for voice at all
• Uses special random numbers to encode bits of
information.
• Allows multiple access by assigning different users different
random numbers on the same channel.
• Users have control of a very wide channel bandwidth 1.5 to 5 MHz
• The only limit to the system is the computing prowess of
the base station and it’s ability to separate noise from
actual data.
• Shannon’s Theorem / SQR
IS-95
• CDMA is an access method.
• IS-95 was the first ‘operating system’ to use CDMA
• Invented by Qualcomm
• Began production in 1995.
• At this point, this is still called 2G wireless.
• Known as a narrowband system.
• Being supplanted by CDMA2000 (WCDMA) and
UMTS, fully 3G systems.
• They both use CDMA.
• Known as wideband systems.
How IS-95 Works
• Operates in the same bandwidth as GSM:
• 1850 to 1910 MHz Mobile to Base
• 1930 – 1990 MHz Base to Mobile
• Channels are 1.25 MHz
• 3.75 MHz in CDMA 2000, 5 MHZ in UMTS
• Results in approximately only 48 forward/reverse channel pairs in IS-95.
• Adjacent cell phone towers use the exact same channels as all other
towers.
• This is a major difference.
• Allows for much better frequency reuse and makes setting up a cellular
network much easier.
How IS-95 Works
• When a phone is turned on, it scans one of the
forward channels to find a base station identifier.
• Camps on the strongest signal.
• The phone sends out an encrypted pass key and gains
access to the network.
• It can then send and receive calls.
• It is assigned a 1.25 MHz wide frequency to operate on.
• It listens for pages on the forward channel to let it
know it has a call incoming.
• This is all very similar to how GSM operates so far.
IS-95 Vocoders
• IS-95 uses extremely advanced vocoders that use variable encoding
rates just like GSM.
• They operate at variable rates, up to a maximum of 9600 bps.
• At a minimum, it encodes 1200 bps, so that the phone doesn’t seem
dead.
• The quality, though less than AMPS, is much higher than GSM, on
average.
IS-95 Vocoders
• However, due to the nature of CDMA, a CRC code is automatically
appended in order to do error checking / error correcting.
How IS-95 Works
• The access method is what makes IS-95 different.
• The access method is called CDMA.
• CDMA is a transmission technique to pass information from the
mobile to the base station and from the base station back to the
mobile.
CDMA Analogy
• 10 people in a room.
• 5 speak English, 2 speak Spanish, 2 speak Chinese, and 1 speaks Russian.
• Everyone is talking at relatively the same time over the same medium
– the air.
• Who can listen to whom and why?
• Who can’t you understand?
• Who can’t speak to anyone else?
CDMA
• Spread Spectrum.
• A signal takes up 6 – 10 times the bandwidth that it needs
at a minimum.
• This seems deliberately inefficient.
• The military used spread spectrum communications
because the signal is:
• Difficult to block.
• Difficult to listen in on.
• Difficult to even identify from noise.
• Much more difficult to tune into a certain frequency.
CDMA
• In CDMA, all users share the same 1.25 MHz bandwidth.
• They all transmit a signal that’s the exact same size, 1.25 MHz
• There’s actually .02 MHz of a guard band, meaning that the actual
bandwidth is 1.23 MHz.
• This would be like 100 AM radio stations all transmitting on the exact
same frequency.
• However, with CDMA, unique digital codes are used to
separate each of the mobile phones.
• Essentially, this makes each mobile phone speak a different language.
• Also, it’s language is very unpredictable, it starts at a random language
and changes in random fashion with a given seed.
• Also, the base station can speak every language as long as it is
synchronized.
• Also, the languages are special in that they will be able to mathematically
never interfere with each other.
• Each bit of the conversation is encoded with this special code.
CDMA Codes Part 1
• In IS-95, the mobile and base station must be synchronized to a nearly
perfect time clock.
• CDMA actually uses GPS satellites to obtain a very accurate, system
wide clock.
• This clock is obtained by every cell phone tower and is used to seed the code
generation process.
CDMA Codes Part 2
• The base station and mobile phone have an algorithm for generating
pseudo random numbers.
• Uses something called Walsh Vectors.
• This mathematical function has a way to generate 128 bit random numbers that are
orthogonal to every other random number that is has generated.
• This random number generator has a very large period.
• When they both start at the same seed (the time), both the mobile and base
station should generate the same random numbers.
• The random number is actually only 32 bits.
CDMA Codes Part 3
• This random number is convoluted with the data.
• Also, a time stamp is added.
• And error codes are added.
• The result is 128 bits that represent only 1 bit of data.
• This is a very computationally intense process.
• But, modern cell phones have fast processors.
• So, the original 9600 bps of conversation has been multiplied to 1.23
Mbps.
CDMA Codes Example
• These codes are designed to never interfere with any other codes to a
very high probability.
• Example (on board)
• The base station, using the mobile’s known code, can convolute this
code with everything that it received.
• This convolution results in only what the mobile sent.
• The base station does have to be smart enough to recognize between
voice traffic and noise.
CDMA Handoffs
• A CDMA telephone gets to decide on the handoff.
• This is different than GSM
Handoff in CDMA System
• In GSM hard handoff occurs at the cell boundary
• Soft Handoff
• Mobile commences Communication with a new BS without interrupting communication with
old BS
• same frequency assignment between old and new BS
• provides different site selection diversity
• Softer Handoff
• Handoff between sectors in a cell
• CDMA to CDMA hard handoff
• Mobile transmits between two base stations with different frequency assignment
Soft Handoff- A unique feature of CDMA
Mobile
Advantages
• Contact with new base station is made before the call is
switched
• Diversity combining is used between multiple cell sites
• Diversity combining is the process of combining information from
multiple transmitted packets to increase the effective SNR of
received packets
• additional resistance to fading
• If the new cell is loaded to capacity, handoff can still be
performed for a small increase in BER
• Neither the mobile nor the base station is required to
change frequency
Advantages of CDMA
• Capacity is CDMA's biggest asset. It can accommodate more users per MHz
of bandwidth than any other technology.
• 3 to 5 times more than GSM
• CDMA has no built-in limit to the number of concurrent users.
• CDMA uses precise clocks that do not limit the distance a tower can cover.
• CDMA consumes less power and covers large areas so cell size in CDMA is
larger.
• CDMA is able to produce a reasonable call with lower signal (cell phone
reception) levels.
• CDMA uses Soft Handoff, reducing the likelihood of dropped calls.
• CDMA's variable rate voice coders reduce the rate being transmitted when
speaker is not talking, which allows the channel to be packed more
efficiently.
• Has a well-defined path to higher data rates.
Disadvantages of CDMA
• Most technologies are patented and must be licensed from
Qualcomm.
• Breathing of base stations, where coverage area shrinks under load.
As the number of subscribers using a particular site goes up, the
range of that site goes down.
• Currently CDMA covers a smaller portion of the world as compared to
GSM which has more subscribers and is in more countries overall
worldwide.
HSCD [High Speed Circuit Switched Data]
• HSCD: A straightforward improvement of GSM’s data transmission
capabilities is high speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) in which
higher data rates are achieved by bundling several TCHs. An MS
requests one or more TCHs from the GSM network, i.e., it allocates
several TDMA slots within a TDMA frame. This allocation can be
asymmetrical, i.e. more
slots can be allocated on the downlink than on the uplink, which fits
the typical user behaviour of downloading more data compared to
uploading. A major disadvantage of HSCD is that it still uses the
connection-oriented mechanisms of GSM, which is not efficient for
computer data traffic.
GPRS
• The next step toward more flexible and powerful data transmission avoids the
problems of HSCSD by being fully packet-oriented.
GPRS: General Packet Radio Service
• It is a mobile data service available to users of GSM mobile phones. It is often
described as "2.5G“.
• GPRS is packet-switched which means that multiple users share the same
transmission channel, only transmitting when they have data to send.
• GPRS provides moderate speed data transfer, by allocating unused cell bandwidth
to transmit data.
• Poor bit rate in busy cells
• Usually, GPRS data is billed per kilobytes of information transceived
• In 3G mobile systems like UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System),
voice and data services will be mixed in a normal communication.
The GPRS concept is independent of channel characteristics
and of the type of channel (traditional GSM traffic or control
channel), and does not limit the maximum data rate (only the
GSM transport system limits the rate). All GPRS services can be
used in parallel to conventional services. GPRS includes several
security services such as authentication, access control, user
identity confidentiality, and user information confidentiality.
• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)
• packet switching
• using free slots only if data packets ready to send
(e.g., 115 kbit/s using 8 slots temporarily)
• standardization 1998
• advantage: one step towards UMTS, more flexible
• disadvantage: more investment needed
• GPRS network elements
• GSN (GPRS Support Nodes): GGSN and SGSN
• GGSN (Gateway GSN)
• interworking unit between GPRS and PDN (Packet Data Network)
• SGSN (Serving GSN)
• supports the MS (location, billing, security)
• GR (GPRS Register)
• user addresses
 GPRS network elements
• The GPRS architecture introduces two new network elements, which are called GPRS
support nodes (GSN) and are in fact routers.
• All GSNs are integrated into the standard GSM architecture, and many new interfaces
have been defined.
• The gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) is the interworking unit between the GPRS
network and external packet data networks (PDN). This node contains routing information
for GPRS users, performs address conversion, and tunnels data to a user via encapsulation.
The GGSN is connected to external networks (e.g., IP or X.25) via the G i interface and
transfers packets to the SGSN via an IPbased GPRS backbone network (G n interface).
• The other new element is the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) which supports the MS
via the G b interface. The SGSN, for example, requests user addresses from the GPRS
register (GR).
• GPRS register (GR) keeps track of the individual MSs’ location, is responsible for collecting
billing information (e.g., counting bytes), and performs several security functions such as
access control.
GPRS architecture and interfaces
SGSN

Gn

BSS SGSN GGSN PDN

MS

Um Gb Gn Gi

MSC HLR/
GR

VLR EIR
THANK U