Module B1 – 3

ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
GOAL 1 : ELECTRON THEORY
 CONTENTS
• CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
• UNITS
• MULTIPLES AND SUB – MULTIPLES

• CHAPTER 2 : ELECTRON THEORY

• THE STRUCTURE OF MATTER

• CHAPTER 3 : CONDUCTORS AND

INSULATIORS
• SEMICONDUCTORS
• TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
• These days we tend to take electricity for granted. We
know that electricity in the home is a way to provide
heat, light, sound and movement. In aircraft though,
electricity is vital; a modern aircraft could not fly without
electricity. Electricity provide power to heat windows,
pump fuel, supply the radio communication and
navigation systems open and close valves and control all
the other systems in the aircraft. Modern ‘fly by wire’
aircraft could not even take off without electricity.
• In this module we shall explain electricity in terms of
electric charge, current, voltage and resistance which
represent quantity, flow rate, pressure/tension and
friction in mechanical systems.
 UNITS
Unit Abbreviation Symbol Note
Ampere A I Electric current
Coulomb C Q Electric charge
Farad F C Capacitance
Henry H L Inductance
Hertz Hz f Frequency
Joule J J,W Energy /Work done
Ohm  R Resistance
Second s t Time
Siemen S G Conductance
Tesla T B Magnetic Flux density
Volt V V,E Electrical potential
Watt W P Power
Weber Wb  Flux
 MULTIPLES AND SUB – MULTIPLES
(Standard range)

Prefix Abbreviation Multiplier Comments

Tera T 1012 = 1 000 000 000 000
Giga G 109 = 1 000 000 000
Mega M 106 = 1 000 000
Kilo k 103 = 1 000
None None 100 =1
Milli m 10-3 = 0001
Micro  10-6 = 0000 001
Nano n 10-9 = 0000 000 001
Pico p 10-12 = 0000 000 000 001
 Example 1

• An indicator lamp requires a current of 025A. Express this quantity in mA

• To convert mA to A we need to apply a multiplier of 10-3 or 0001. So to

convert A to mA we multiply by 1000 as follows 025A = 025 x 1000 =
250mA

• Key Point Multiplying by 1000 is equivalent to moving the decimal point

three places to the right. Dividing by 1000 is equivalent to moving the
decimal point three places to the left. Similarly multiplying by 1 000 000 is
equivalent to moving the decimal point six places to the right. Dividing by 1
000 000 is equivalent to moving the decimal point six places to the left.
 Example 2

• An insulation tester produces a voltage of 2750V. Express this quantity in

kV
• To convert V to kV we need to apply a multiplier of 10-3 or 0001. So to
convert 2750V to kV we divide 2750 by 1000 as follows
• 2750V = 2750 x 0001 = 2.75kV

• Here, multiplying by 0 001 is equivalent to moving the decimal point to the

left.
 Example 3
• A capacitor has a value of 27 000pF. Express this in F
• There are 1 000 000 pF in F. So to express the value of 27 000 pF in F
we need to multiply by 0000 001. The easiest way of doing this is simply to
move the decimal point six places to the left.
• So 27 000pF is equivalent to 0027F.

• (note that we have had to introduce an extra zero after the decimal point)
 QUIZ Quiz 01-1.doc

Question Answer

State the units for electric current

State the units for frequency
State the symbol used for capacitance
State the symbol used for conductance
A pulse has a duration of 000075. Express this time in ms.
A generator produces a voltage of 440V. Express this in kV
A signal has a frequency of 1562MHz. Express this in kHz
A current of 570A flows in a resistor. Express this current in mA
A capacitor has a value of 022F. Express this capacitance in nF.
A resistor has a value of 470k. Express this resistance in MΏ
 CHAPTER 2 : ELECTRON THEORY

• QCAR Syllabus 3.1

• Structure and distribution of electrical charges within atoms, molecules, ions
and compounds; Molecular structure of conductors, semiconductors and
insulators
 ELECTRIC CHARGE

• Electrical charge is a basic property of matter carried by some elementary

particles. Electric charge, which can be positive +ve or negative -ve, occurs
in discrete natural units and is neither created nor destroyed.
• An Electron carries a single negative charge
• Electric charges are of two general types: positive and negative. Two
objects that have an excess of one type of charge exert a force of repulsion
on each other when relatively close.

• From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

• The elementary charge, e, is the electric charge carried by a single proton, or
equivalently, the negative of the electric charge carried by a single electron.
• This is a fundamental physical constant and the unit of electric charge in the system
of atomic units as well as some other systems of natural units.
 BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM

• To understand what electricity is we need to take a look inside the

ATOMS that make up all forms of matter. Since we cannot actually
do this with a real atom we will have to use a MODEL.
• Fortunately, understanding how this model works is not too difficult
just remember that what we are talking about is very, very small.
 BOHR MODEL OF THE ATOM

In this single atom as in all normal atoms the electrons are 2000 times lighter
than the Protons and Neutrons. The electric charges of protons and electrons
are equal but opposite

Nucleus contains
Positively charged Protons
and electrically neutral
neutrons

• An Electron carries a
single negative charge
 THE HYDROGEN ATOM

• The HYDROGEN atom which is the simplest and lightest of all atoms is
unique in that it alone has no neutrons in the nucleus
 THE HELIUM ATOM

• The HELIUM atom is the NEXT simplest and lightest of all atoms. Like all
other atoms (except hydrogen) it requires neutrons in the nucleus to
stabilise it.
 BOHR MODELS

• Within the nucleus there are protons which are positively charged and
neutrons which, as their name implies, are electrical neutral and have no
charge. Orbiting the nucleus are electrons that have a negative charge,
equal in magnitude (size) to the charge on the proton. These electrons are
approximately 2000 times lighter than the protons and neutrons in the
nucleus. The Hydrogen atom which is the simplest and lightest of all atoms
is unique in that it alone has no neutrons in the nucleus
 ELECTRICITY FROM FRICTION
• + Charges and electrons are present in equal quantities in the rod and the
fur
• In a stable atom the number of protons and electrons are equal, so that
overall, the atom is neutral and has no charge.

Fur

Hard rubber rod

+ Charges and electrons

are present in equal
quantities in the rod and
the fur
 ELECTRICITY FROM FRICTION

• However, if we rub two particular materials together (Fig 3), electrons may
be transferred from one to another. This alters the stability of the atom,
leaving it with a net positive or negative charge.

Electrons are transferred

• from the fur to the rod
 ATOMS and IONS
• When an atom within a material looses electrons it becomes positively
charged and is known as a positive ion when an atom gains an electron it
has a surplus negative charge and so is known as a negative ion.

No longer electrically neutral.

Referred to as an ION positive
in this instance).
 ELECTROSTATIC FORCE
• These differences in charge can cause electrostatic effects. For example,
combing your hair with a nylon comb may result in a difference in charge
between your hair and the rest of your body, resulting in your hair standing
on end when your hand or some other differently charged body such as
small pieces of plastic are brought close to it
 ELECTRON SHELLS

• The number of electrons occupying a given orbit within an atom is

predictable and is based on the position of the element within the periodic
table. The electrons in all atoms sit in a particular position (shell) dependent
on their energy level.
• Each of these shells within the atom is filled by electrons from the nucleus
outwards. The first, inner most, of these shells can have up to two electrons;
the second shell can have up to eight and the third up to 18.
• You can calculate the total capacity of an electron shell using the formula
2n2
• Taking the example of the Aluminium atom Al with atomic number 13 it can
be deduced that the electrons will arrange them selves 2, 8, and 3 electron
in the outermost shell see ‘Atoms and Ions’
 ELECTRON SHELLS
• Taking the example of the copper atom Cu with atomic number 29 it can be deduced that
the electrons will arrange them selves 2, 8, 18 and 1 electron in the outermost shell.
 CHAPTER 3 : CONDUCTORS AND
INSULATORS
• A material which has many free electrons available to act as charge carriers and thus allows current to flow freely is known as a conductor. Examples of good conductors include aluminum, copper, gold and
iron.

Random motion NOT

current flow

Above shows a material with one outer electron that can become easily
detached from the parent atom. It requires a small amount of external
energy to overcome the attraction of the nucleus.
 CURRENT FLOW
• Sources of such energy may include heat, light or electrostatic fields. The atom
once detached from the atom is able to move freely around the structure of the
material and is called a free electron. It is these free electrons that become the
charge carriers, within a material. Materials that have large numbers of free
electrons make good conductors of electrical energy and heat.

Orderly motion of free electrons

from –ve to + ve is CURRENT
FLOW
CURRENT FLOW IN CONDUCTORS
 CURRENT FLOW IN CONDUCTORS
• Metals are the best conductors, since they have a very large number of free
electrons available to act as charge carriers. Materials that do not conduct
charge are called insulators, their electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei of
their atoms. Examples of insulators include plastics, glass, rubber and
ceramic materials.
• The effects of electric current flow can be detected by the presence of one
or more of the following effects: light, heat, magnetism, chemical, pressure
and friction. For example, if a piezoelectric crystal is subject to an electrical
current it can change its shape and exert pressure. Heat is another, more
obvious effect from electric heating elements.
• Key Point
• Metals, like copper and silver, are good conductors of electricity and they
readily support the flow of current. Plastics, rubber and ceramic materials
are insulators and do not support the flow of current.
 SEMICONDUCTORS
• Some materials combine some of the electrical characteristics of conductors
with those of insulators. They are known as semiconductors. In these
materials there may be a number of free electrons sufficient to allow a small
current to flow. It is possible to add foreign atoms (called impurity atoms) to
the semiconductor material that modify the properties of the semiconductor.
Varying combinations of these additional atoms are used to produce various
electrical devices, such as diodes and transistors. Common types of
semiconductor materials are silicon, germanium, selenium and gallium
• Key point
• Pure semiconductors are insulating materials. However with the addition of
a small amount of an impurity element present they will conduct electricity.
Typical examples are silicon and germanium.
•
 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
• Conductors All materials offer some resistance to current flow. In
conductors the free electrons, rather than passing unobstructed through the
material, collide with the relatively large and solid nuclei of the atoms. As the
temperature increases, the nuclei vibrate more energetically further
obstructing the path of the free electrons, causing more frequent collisions.
The result is that the resistance of conductors increases with temperature.
• Insulators Due to the nature of the bonding in insulators, there are no
free electrons, except when thermal energy increases as a result of a
temperature increase, a few outer electrons break free from their fixed
positions and act as charge carriers.
• The result is that the resistance of insulators decreases as temperature
increases
• Semiconductors behave in a similar manner to insulators. At absolute zero
(-273°C) both the types of material act as perfect insulators. However,
unlike the insulator, as temperature increases in a semiconductor large
numbers of electrons break free to act as charge carriers. Therefore, as
temperature increases, the resistance of a semiconductor decreases
rapidly.
 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
• By producing special alloys, such as eureka and manganin that combine the effects
of insulators and conductors, it is possible to produce a material where the
resistance remains constant with increase in temperature. Below shows how the
resistance of insulators, semiconductors and conductors change with temperature.
1 In a stable neutral atom the number of ___________and ____________ are
equal and there is no overall charge.
2 When an atom within a material losses electrons it becomes__________
charged and is known as a _________
3 When an atom gains an electron it has a surplus _____________charge and
so known as a ___________
4 The electrical properties of a material are determined by the number of
____________ present.
5 Materials that do not conduct electric charge are called ____________
6 Name two materials that act as good electrical conductors.__________ and
_____________
7 Name two materials that act as good electrical insulators. ___________ and
_____________
8 Name two semiconductor materials. ____________ and ____________
9 Explain briefly how the resistance of a metallic conductor varies with
temperature.______________________________________________
10 Explain briefly how the resistance of an insulator varies with temperature.
_______________________________________________
Quiz 01-2.doc