5.

DIFFERENT MEASURING INSTRUMENT TYPES, WORKING

PRINCIPLE AND SELECTION CRITERIA

Measurements Sensors

Pressure Temperature Flow Level

Ex:- Pressure Cooker

Pressure
Flow

Temperature Level
 Measurement

– the process of determining the amount, degree, by direct or

indirect with the accepted standards of the system units

being used.

 Instrumentation:

– provides the means of monitoring, recording and controlling

a process to maintain it at a desired state.

• Instrument and Measurement system are used for different
application are:
Monitoring of process and operations )i(
Control of processes and operations )ii(
5.1. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

pressure
– is force per unit area over which the force is distributed.
– is force per unit area, exerted by a fluid on the surface of the
container.
– Is an important factor should be measured in all industries.

Pressure measuring devices may be divided in two groups.

1. Those that are based on the measurement of the height of
Liquid column
2. Those that are based on the measurement of the distortion of
an elastic pressure chamber.
it is important to explain some terms used in pressure
measurement
– Absolute pressure: This is the difference between the
pressure of the fluid and the absolute zero of pressure.
– Gauge pressure: This describes the difference between the
pressure of a fluid and atmospheric pressure.
– Atmospheric pressure: Sea level standard atmospheric
pressure is 101.325Kpa but it changes with altitude of
earth.
– Differential pressure: is difference between unknown
pressure and known pressure (constant).
5.1. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

1. Liquid column methods (Manometer)

• Means the pressure being measured is balanced against

the pressure exerted by a column of liquid.

• The density of the liquid is known, the height of the

liquid is measure of the pressure.

• Instruments using this principle is called Manometer.

• When the height of the liquid is observed visually, the

liquid columns are contained in transparent tubes.

• Liquids used in manometer are generally water and
mercury.
 MANOMETERS
• Manometers are self-balancing deflection type of
instruments.
• The various types of manometers are:
– U tube manometer
– Well type Manometer and
– Inclined tube Manometer.
 U tube manometer
• This is used for measurement of liquid or gas
pressures.
• The manometer is filled with a manometric
fluid whose specific gravity is known.
• The difference between the pressures on two
limbs of the manometer is a function of h (the
difference between the levels of the
manometric fluid in the two limbs). Fig. 1. U Tube Manometer
• Difference in pressure causes difference in
liquid level between sides
• The pressure balance equation is

p   gh p1  p2   gh
 Well type Manometer

 Unlike in the case of a U tube manometer, the two legs do not

have the same area.

 The cross-sectional area of the well (used on the high pressure

side) is very large as compared to the area of the other leg.

Fig. 2 Well type Manometer

 Inclined Tube Manometer

 An inclined tube manometer is a modified version of a well-type

manometer wherein the vertical leg is placed in an almost

horizontal position so that a very small change in pressure in the

well causes a very large change in the measured level of liquid in

the inclined leg.

Fig.3 Inclined tube manometer

 Elastic – Element Method

• when Elastic elements subjected to pressure get deformed.

when The deformation measured, gives an indication of the

pressure.
• The deformation may be measured by mechanical or electrical
means.
• These devices may be classified into three types.

– Bourden Tubes Elements

– Diaphragm Elements

– Bellows Elements
 Bourdon-Tube Pressure

• Used in many applications because of its consistency, And

inexpensive measurement of static pressure measurement.

• The bourdon-tube itself is usually an elliptical cross-sectional

tube having “C” shape configuration

 There are three types of Bourdon elements and they are,

– C- type

– spiral type, and

– helical type.
 Operation:

– When the pressure is applied to the inside of the tube an elastic

deformation results which ideally is proportional to the pressure.

– Bourdon tube is elastic transducer which is fixed at one end and

open at the other end to receive the pressure which is to be

measured.

– The end of gauge is connected to a spring-loaded linkage which amplifies

the displacement and transform it to an angular rotation of the pointer.

– An electrical-resistance strain gauge may also be installed on the

bourdon-tube to sense there elastic deformation.

 Diaphragm pressure gauge

• Diaphragm is elastic material which displaces, when

it is applied to pressure.

• The displacement of the center of the diaphragm is

directly proportional to the pressure and therefore

can be used as a measure of pressure.

 Bellows pressure gauge

• Expandable element

• Free end responds to pressure

• Spring used to oppose force

• Primarily for ON / OFF control

 Flow measurement

• Flow defined as volume per unit of time at specified

temperature and pressure.

• The most common principals for fluid flow metering are

– Differential Pressure Flow meters

– Velocity Flow meters

– Positive Displacement Flow meters

– Mass Flow meters

– Open Channel Flow meters

 Flow measurement

• Flow defined as volume per unit of time at specified

temperature and pressure.

• There are two basic ways of measuring flow: one on

volumetric basis and the other on weight basis.

Orifice Meter

Venturimeter

Flow Measuring Instruments Rotameter

Pitot Tube

Turbine Flow meter

16
 Orifice Meter
• Orifice plates are the most common type of Δp meter and are
basically a machined metal plate with a hole.
• The plate has a sharp upstream edge and usually a bevelled
edge downstream of the flow.

• When fluid passes through the hole of an orific

– The flow continues to contract and converges downstream of the

plate with the point of maximum convergence

– The fluid then expands and re-attaches to the pipe wall, and the

velocity profile approaches that before the constriction.

 Venturi tubes

• It operated on exactly the same principle as the orifice.

• This type of meter has a gradual reduction in the pipe
area, a parallel throat section and then a gradual
expansion back to the full pipe diameter.
• The Venturi Tube is often selected because pressure drop is
not as significant as with the orifice plate and accuracy is
better maintained.
 Rotameter

• It consists of a vertical tube with a

tappered bore in which a float
changes with the flow rate through
the tube. Buoyancy
• For a given flow rate the float Gravity
remains stationary since the vertical
forms of differential pressure,
gravity, viscosity and buoyancy are
balanced.

Fd + f Vb g = b Vb g
Flow

19
 The force balance on the  Combining the Fd equation with the
bob gives: force balance equation gives:
Fd + f Vb g = b Vb g
1/ 2
where:  1 2 gV   
b  b
Fd: the drag force = 0.5Cd Ab um    1
f um  Cd Ab   f 

Cd: a drag coefficient
Ab: the frontal area of the bob or
um: the mean flow velocity of 1/ 2
the  1 2 gV   
b  b
annular area between the Q  Aum  A  1
bob and the tube  Cd Ab   f 

f,b: the densities of the fluid
and the bob where A is the annular area and is given by
Vb: volume of the bob 

A   D  ay   d 2
4
2

 Level Measurement
• In modern manufacturing industries which use many

solvents, chemicals, steam and other liquids and in power

plants which use vast amount of water, the accurate

measurement of liquid level is very essential.

Direct Hook Type Level
Method Indicator
Float Type Level
Level Measuring Devices
Indicator

Indirect Electric Method

Method
 1. DIRECT METHOD

• Direct method use the varying level of the liquid as a mean

of obtaining the measurement.

• This is the simplest method of measuring liquid level.

• In this method, the level of the liquid is measured directly

by means of the following level indicators:

i. Sight Glass / Gauge Glass

ii. Float Type / Float - Operated Level Gauges

iii. Torque Tube Displacer / Float Displacement Type Level Gauges

  SIGHT GLASS / GAUGE GLASS

– used for the continuous indication of liquid level within a tank

or vessel.

– A plastic/glass tube connected to the bottom of the tank at one

end and the top of the tank at the other end.

– The measurement of liquid level with this device is simple and

direct for clean and coloured liquids , however it is rather un

suitable for dirty, viscous and corrosive liquids.

23
FLOAT DISPLACEMENTLEVEL MEASUREMENT

– The float sensor is accurate and have a linear output with level height.

– The float material is less dense than the density of the liquid, and

floats up and down on top of the material being measured.

– A floating body, because of its buoyancy, would always follow the

varying liquid level. Therefore, float-operated devices are capable of

giving continuous, direct liquid level measurements.

 2. INDIRECT METHODS
– Measures another process variable (e.g. head pressure or weight)

in order to infer level.

– The Following are the indirect methods of liquid level

measurement generally used in industries.

I. Hydrostatic pressure type

II. Electrical methods

III. Ultrasonic level sensor

 i. HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE TYPE
– Hydrostatic pressure methods used for liquid level measurement
are listed below.

a) Pressure gauge method

b) Air purge system

c) Diaphragm box type

d) Torque balance type

 ELECTRICAL METHODS
– Two electrical characteristics of fluids are conductivity and electric

constant.

– An application of electrical conductivity is the fixed point level

detection of a conductive liquid such as high and low water

levels.

– A voltage is applicable between two electrodes inserted into

the vessel at different levels.

a) Capacitance level indicators

b) Radiation level detector

 A. Capacitance level indicators
– Two electrical characteristics of fluids are conductivity and electric

constant.

– Capacitance type level measurements are based on the fact

that the electrical capacitance between two electrodes varies

with the di-electric constant of the material between them.

– The change in liquid level causes a variation in the dielectric

between the two plates, which in turn causes a corresponding

change in the value of the capacitance of the condenser.

 B. Radiation level detector
– Used where other electrical methods would not survive.

– There is no physical contact with the liquid.

– It consists of gamma rays source holder on 1 side of the tank & a

gamma detector on the other side of the tank.

– The gamma rays from the source are directed towards the detector

in a thin band of radiation.

 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
– Measurement of the hotness and coldness of a body or fluid is common place

in the process industries.

– In chemical reactions, temperature control is of major importance, since

chemical reactions are temperature-dependent and the desired quality of a

product is possible only if the temperature is accurately measured and

maintained.

– Temperature cannot be measured directly but must be measured by

observing the effect that temperature variation causes on the measuring

device.
–TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Temperature measurement methods can be broadly classified as
follows:

– non-electrical methods,

– electrical methods, and

– radiation methods.
Resistance temperature detector (RTD)
– The resistance of most metals increases in a reasonably linear way
with temperature according to the following equation:
– RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a temperature sensitive
resistor.
– It is a positive temperature coefficient device, which means that
the resistance increases with temperature.

RT  R0 (1  T )
 Thermocouple
– If two dissimilar wires are connected together to form a closed

circuit, and if the two junctions are at different temperature, small

e.m.f is generated between the two junction which is proportional

to the temperature difference between the hot and cold junction.

 Thermistors
– Thermistors are semiconductor material that typically has a high

negative temperature coefficient of resistance . i.e the resistance

decreases as the temperature increases, according to:

– Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with

increasing temperature.

– As the temperature of semiconductor material increases the

number of electrons able to move about increases which results in

more current in the material and reduced resistance.

 Radiation thermometers
– All objects emit electromagnetic radiation as a function of their

temperature above absolute zero, and radiation thermometers

measure this radiation in order to calculate the temperature of the

object.

– The total rate of radiation emission per second is given by:

 SENSOR
– defined as an element which produces signal relating to the

quantity being measured

– A sensor acquires a physical quantity and converts it into a signal

suitable for processing (e.g. optical, electrical, mechanical)

– A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified

measured .

– the output is usually an ‘electrical quantity’ and measured is a

‘physical quantity.
 SENSOR
– To choose an appropriate sensor for a particular need, we have to

consider a number of different characteristics.

– These characteristics determine the performance, economy, and

applicability of the sensor.

 cost
 size
 type of out put
 Accuracy
 Reliability
 Response time
 Range
 Linearity
 Sensitivity
 Resolution
 POSITION
– As their SENSOR
name implies, these types of sensors provide a "position“

feedback.

– are concerned with the determination of the position of some object in

relation to some reference point.

– Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in

relation to some reference point.

Potentiometers

– A potentiometer converts position information into a variable voltage

through a resistor.

– It relates the change in position (linear or rotary) into the change in

resistance.
 Displacement sensors
– Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of

movement of an object.

– Used to measure directly and indirectly the size, shape, and

position of the object.

 MOTION SENSORS
– Motion sensors’ can be used to refer to any kind of sensing system

which is used to detect motion; motion of any object or motion of

human beings.

– An electronic motion detector contains a motion sensor that

transforms the detection of motion into an electric signal.

– there are many types of motion sensing, but the major ones are as

mentioned below:-

– Passive Infrared Motion Sensing.

– Ultrasonic Motion Sensing.

– Microwave Motion Sensing

 MOTION SENSORS
– Passive Infrared Motion Sensing (PIR sensor) is an electronic device

that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in Its field of

view.

– This type of detector is often used as part of a larger security system.

– E.g. Automatic Door Opening System. Automatic Counting

Mechanisms.

Ultrasonic motion sensing

– Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound waves and

evaluate the echo which is received back by the sensor.

 MOTION SENSORS
Microwave motion sensing

– If an object is moving, the sensor receives different microwaves than

the ones it sent out, signifying movement and setting off the alarm.

– The sensor then reads the frequency of the returning waves.

– These types of motion sensor systems cover a larger area than

infrared sensors, they are capable of penetrating walls.

 SMOKE AND CHEMICAL SENSORS
– Smoke:- is a collection of airborne solid and liquid particulates and

gases emitted when a material undergoes combustion or pyrolysis.

– Smoke is an aerosol (mist) of solid particles and liquid droplets that

are close to the ideal range of sizes for scattering of visible light.

– Smoke is also a component of internal combustion engine exhaust

gas, particularly diesel exhaust.

SMOKE AND CHEMICAL SENSORS
– chemical sensor is a device that transforms chemical information,

ranging from the concentration of a specific sample component to

total composition analysis, into an analytically useful signal.