Chapter 2

Measurements

1
 CHAPTER OUTLINE

 Scientific Notation
 Error in Measurements
 Significant Figures
 Rounding Off Numbers
 SI Units
 Conversion of Factors
 Conversion of Units
 Volume & Density

2
What is a Measurement?
 quantitative
observation
 comparison to an
agreed upon
standard
 every measurement
has a number and a
unit
A Measurement
 the unit tells you what standard you
are comparing your object to
 the number tells you
1. what multiple of the standard the
object measures
2. the uncertainty in the measurement
 Scientists have measured the
average global temperature rise
over the past century to be 0.6°C
 °C tells you that the
temperature is being
compared to the Celsius
temperature scale
 0.6 tells you that
1. the average temperature rise is
0.6 times the standard unit
2. the uncertainty in the
measurement is such that we
know the measurement is
between 0.5 and 0.7°C
 SCIENTIFIC
NOTATION
 Scientific Notation is a convenient way to express
very large or very small quantities.
 Its general form is
A x 10n

n = exponent
coefficient
1  A < 10
6
 SCIENTIFIC
NOTATION
To convert from decimal to scientific notation:
 Follow
Move the thedecimal point by
new number in the original number
a multiplication signso
that 10
and it iswith
located after the(power).
an exponent first nonzero digit.
 The exponent is equal to the number of places that
the decimal point was shifted.

75000000
7.5 x 10 7
7
 Scientific Notation:
Writing Large and Small Numbers
 A positive exponent means 1 multiplied by 10 n times.
 A negative exponent (–n) means 1 divided by 10 n
times.
 SCIENTIFIC
NOTATION
 For numbers smaller than 1, the decimal moves
to the left and the power becomes negative.

0 00642
3
6.42 x 10

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Examples:
1. Write 6419 in scientific notation.

decimal after
first nonzero power of 10
digit

64.19x10
641.9x10
6419.
6419
6.419 x 10 21 3

10
Examples:
2. Write 0.000654 in scientific notation.

decimal after
power of 10
first nonzero
digit

0.000654
0.00654
0.0654
6.54
0.654 x
xx10
10
10-1-2
-4
-3

11
 CALCULATIONS WITH
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
 To perform multiplication or division with
scientific notation:
1. Change numbers to exponential form.
2. Multiply or divide coefficients.
3. Add exponents if multiplying, or subtract
exponents if dividing.
4. If needed, reconstruct answer in standard
exponential form.

12
Example 1:
Multiply 30,000 by 600,000

Convert
Multiply
Reconstruct
Addto exponential
exponents
coefficients
answerform

(3 x 104) (6 x 105) = 18 x 10 9
1.8 x 1010

13
Example 2:
Divided 30,000 by 0.006

Convert
Subtract
Reconstruct
Divide
to exponential
coefficients
exponents
answerform
4 – (-3)
(3 x 104) 7
= 0.5 x 10
(6 x 10-3)
5 x 106

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Follow-up Problems:
(5.5x103)(3.1x105) = 17.05x108 = 1.7x109
(9.7x1014)(4.3x1020) = 41.71x106 = 4.2x105
6
2.6x10
2
= 0.4483x10 4
= 4.5x103
5.8x10
5
1.7x10
8
= 0.2073x103 = 2.1x102
8.2x10
(3.7x106)(4.0x108) = 14.8x102 = 1.5x103
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Follow-up Problems:

(8.75x1014)(3.6x108) = 31.5x1022 = 3.2x1023

28
1.48x10
13
= 0.2041x1041 = 2.04x1042
7.25x10

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 ACCURACY & PRECISION

 Precision is the reproducibility of a measurement

Is this
compared to other similar measurements.
measurement
 Precision describes how close measurements
precise? are
to one another.
 Precision is affected by random errors.

Avg mass = 3.12± 0.01 g

This measurement has high precision because
the deviation of multiple trials is small.

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 ACCURACY & PRECISION

 Accuracy is the closeness of a measurement

Is this to an
measurement
accepted value (external standard).
accurate?
 Accuracy describes how true a measurement is.
 Accuracy is affected by systematic errors.

Avg mass = 3.12± 0.01 g True mass = 3.03 g

ThisAccuracy cannothas
measurement below
determined
accuracywithout
because
theknowledge of thetrue
deviation from accepted value.
value is large.

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 ACCURACY & PRECISION

Poor precision Good precision

Good accuracy Poor accuracy

Good precision Poor precision

Good accuracy Poor accuracy

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 ACCURACY & PRECISION

 Two types of error can affect measurements:

 Systematic errors: those errors that are controllable, and cause
measurements to be either higher or lower than the actual value.
 Random errors: those errors that are uncontrollable, and cause
measurements to be both higher and lower than the average
value.

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 ERROR IN
MEASUREMENTS
 Two kinds of numbers are used in science:
Counted or defined:
exact numbers; have no uncertainty
Measured:
are subject to error; have uncertainty
 Every measurement has uncertainty because of
instrument limitations and human error.
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 ERROR IN
MEASUREMENTS
certain 8.65 uncertain

certain 8.6 uncertain

 Theislast
What thisdigit in any
measurement?measurement
What is the
is this measurement?
estimated one.
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RECORDING MEASUREMENTS
TO THE PROPER NO OF DIGITS

What is the correct value

for each measurement?

a) 28ml (1 certain, 1 uncertain)

b) 28.2ml (2 certain, 1 uncertain)

c) 28.31ml (3 certain, 1 uncertain)

23
 SIGNIFICANT
FIGURES RULES
1. Significant figures
All non-zero digitsrules
figures are
arethearecertain
used toand
significant. determine
uncertain
which digits
digits in are significant and which are not.
a measurement.
2. All sandwiched zeros are significant.
3. Leading zeros (before or after a decimal) are
NOT significant.
4. Trailing zeros (after a decimal) are significant.

0 . 0 0 4 0 0 4 5 0 0
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Examples:
Determine the number of significant figures in each
of the following measurements.

461 cm 3 sig figs 93.500 g 5 sig figs

1025 g 4 sig figs 0.006 m 1 sig fig

0.705 mL 3 sig figs 5500 km 2 sig figs

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 ROUNDING OFF
NUMBERS
 If rounded digit is less than 5, the digit is dropped.

51.234 Round to 3 sig figs

1.875377
Less than 5Round to 4 sig figs
Less than 5

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 ROUNDING OFF
NUMBERS
 If rounded digit is equal to or more than 5, the
digit is increased by 1.

4
51.369 Round to 3 sig figs

1
5.4505
More than Round
5 to 4 sig figs
Equal to 5

27
 SIGNIFICANT
FIGURES & CALCULATIONS
 The results of a calculation cannot be more
precise than the least precise measurement.
 In multiplication or division, the answer must
contain the same number of significant figures
as in the measurement that has the least number
of significant figures.
 For addition and subtraction, the answer must
have the same number of decimal places as
there are in the measurement with the fewest
decimal places.

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 MULTIPLICATION
& DIVISION

4 sig figs Calculator

3 sig figs
answer

(9.2)(6.80)(0.3744) = 23.4225
2 sig figs The answer should have two significant
figures because 9.2 is the number with
the fewest significant figures.

The correct answer is 23

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 ADDITION &
SUBTRACTION

Add 83.5 and 23.28

Least precise number 83.5
23.28
Calculator
answer 106.78
106.8
Correct answer

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 Example 1:

5.008 + 16.2 + 13.48 = 34.688 34.7

Least precise
number
Round to

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Example 2:
3 sig figs

3.15 x 1.53
= 6.1788 6.2
0.78

2 sig figs
Round to

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 SI UNITS

 Measurements are made by scientists to

determine size, length and other properties of
matter.
 For measurements to be useful, a measurement
standard must be used.
 A standard is an exact quantity that people agree
to use for comparison.
 SI is the standard system of measurement used
worldwide by scientists.
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 SI (METRIC)
BASE UNITS

Metric English
Quantity Measured Symbol
Units Units
Length Meter m yd
Mass Kilogram kg lb
Time Seconds s s
Temperature Kelvin K F
Amount of
Mole mol mol
substance

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 Basic Units of Measurement

 The kilogram is a measure of mass, which

is different from weight.
 The mass of an object is a measure of
the quantity of matter within it.
 The weight of an object is a measure of
the gravitational pull on that matter.
 Consequently, weight depends on gravity
while mass does not.
 Derived Units

 A derived unit is formed from other units.

 Many units of volume, a measure of
space, are derived units.
 Any unit of length, when cubed (raised to
the third power), becomes a unit of
volume.
 Cubic meters (m3), cubic centimeters
(cm3), and cubic millimeters (mm3) are all
units of volume.
 DERIVED UNITS

 In addition to the base units, several derived

units are commonly used in SI system.
Quantity Measured Units Symbol
Volume Liter L
Density grams/cc g/cm3

37
 SI PREFIXES

 Common prefixes
The SI system are
of unitsused with
is easy
SI Prefixes to the
use base units
because it to
is
indicate
based onthe multiple
multiples ofof ten that the unit represents.
ten.
Prefixes Symbol Multiplying factor
mega- M 1,000,000 106
kilo- k 1000 103
centi- c 0.01 10-2
milli- m 0.001 10-3
micro-  0.000,001 10-6

38
 SI UNITS &
PREFIXES
 SI system used a common set of prefixes for use
with the base units.
106 103 Base Unit 103 106
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
micro milli deci kilo mega
centi

Smaller units Larger units

39
 SI CONVERSION
FACTORS

106 Base Unit 103 106

10 3

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
micro milli deci kilo mega
centi

1m= 103 mm or 1 mm = 103 m

1 mm = 103 m or 1 m = 103 mm

40
 SI PREFIXES

How many cm
mmare
areininaakm?
cm? 100000
10x10x10x10x10
10
or 105
41
 Prefix Multipliers

 Choose the prefix multiplier that is most

convenient for a particular measurement.
 Pick a unit similar in size to (or smaller
than) the quantity you are measuring.
 A short chemical bond is about 1.2 × 10–
10 m. Which prefix multiplier should you

use?
 The most convenient one is probably the
picometer. Chemical bonds measure
about 120 pm.
 CONVERSION
FACTORS
 Many problems in chemistry and related fields
require a change of units.
 Any unit can be converted into another by use of
the appropriate conversion factor.
Metric-
 Any equality in units can be written in the form of
Metric
a fraction called a conversion factor. For Factor
example:
Equality 1 m = 100 cm

Conversion Factors 1m 100 cm

or
100 cm 1m
43
 CONVERSION
FACTORS Metric-English
Factor
Equality 1 kg = 2.20 lb
1 kg 2.20 lb
Conversion Factors or
2.20 lb 1 kg
 Sometimes a conversion factor is given Percentage
as a percentage.
For example: Factor
Percent quantity: 18% body fat by mass
Conversion 18 kg body fat 100 kg body mass
or
Factors 100 kg body mass 18 kg body fat
44
 CONVERSION
OF UNITS
 Problems involving conversion of units and other
chemistry problems can be solved using the
following step-wise method:
4.
2.
3. Write
Plan
Set upathe
the
1. Determinesequence
conversion
problem
the of steps
intial by
factor
arranging
unit to convert
forand
given each
cancelling
the
units
the initial
change
final units
unit
unit in
in
tothe
the
needed.
final unit.
your
numerator
plan. and denominator of the steps involved.

final unit
beginning unit x = final unit
beginning unit

Conversion factor 45
Example 1:
Convert 164 lb to kg (1 kg = 2.20 lb)
Step 1: Given: 164 lb Need: kg

lb Metric-English kg
Step 2: factor

Step 3: 1 kg 2.20 lb
or
2.20 lb 1 kg
1 kg
Step 4: 164 lb x = 74.5 kg
2.20 lb
46
Example 2:
The thickness of a book is 2.5 cm. What is this measurement
in mm?
Step 1: Given: 2.5 cm Need: mm
cm Metric-Metric mm
Step 2: factor

Step 3: 1 cm 10 mm
or
10 mm 1 cm
10 mm
Step 4: 2.5 cm x = 25 mm
1 cm
47
Example 3:
How many centimeters are in 2.0 ft? (1 in=2.54 cm)

Step 1: Given: 2.0 ft Need: cm

ft English-English in Metric-English cm
Step 2: factor factor

Step 3: 1 ft 1 in
and
12 in 2.54 cm
12 in 2.54 cm
Step 4: 2.0 ft x x = 60.96
61 cmcm
1 ft 1 in
48
Example 4:
Bronze is 80.0% by mass copper and 20.0% by mass tin.
A sculptor is preparing to case a figure that requires
1.75 lb of bronze. How many grams of copper are
needed for the brass figure (1lb = 454g)?

Step 1: Given: 1.75 lb bronze Need: g of copper

lb English-Metric g Percentage g
Step 2: factor factor
brz brz Cu

49
Example 4:
1 lb 80.0 g Cu
Step 3: and
454 g 100 g brz

454 g 80.0 g Cu
Step 4: 1.75 lb brz x x = =635.6
636 g
1 lb 100 g brz

50
 VOLUME

 Volume is the amount of space an object

occupies.
 Common units are cm3 or liter (L) and
milliliter (mL).

1 L = 1000 mL 1 mL = 1 cm3

51
 VOLUME

 Volume of various regular shapes can be

calculated as follows:

Cube V = s x s x s Rect. V = l x w x h

Cylinder V = π x r2 x h Sphere V =4/3 πr3

52
 DENSITY

 Density is mass per unit volume of a material.

 Common units are g/cm3 (solids) or g/mL (liquids).

Density is directly
Density is indirectly
related
related to
to the
the
mass of an object.
volume of an object.

Which has greatest density?

53
Example 1:
A copper sample has a mass of 44.65 g and a volume
of 5.0 mL. What is the density of copper?

m = 44.65 g m 44.65 g
d= = = 8.9
8.93g/mL
g/mL
v 5.0 mL
v = 5.0 mL

d = ??? Round to
2 sig figs

54
Example 2:
A silver bar with a volume of 28.0 cm3 has a mass of
294 g. What is the density of this bar?

m = 294 g m 294 g
d= = = 10.5 g/mL
v 28.0 mL
v = 28.0 mL

d = ??? 3 sig figs

55
Example 3:
If the density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3, how many grams
does a 5.00 cm3 nugget weigh?
Step 1: Given: 5.00 cm3 Need: g

Step 2: cm3 density g

19.3 g
Step 3: 5.00 cm x
3
= 96.5 g
1 cm 3

56
Example 4:
If the density of milk is 1.04 g/mL, what is the mass of
0.50 qt of milk? (1L = 1.06 qt)
Step 1: Given: 0.5 qt Need: g

Step 2: qt English-Metric Metric-Metric

factor L mL density g
factor

1L 103 mL 1.04 g
Step 3: and and
1.06 qt 1L 1 mL
1 L 103 mL 1.04 g
Step 4: 0.50 qt x x x == 490
490.57
g g
1.06 qt 1L 1 mL
57
Example 5:
What volume of mercury has a mass of 60.0 g if its
density is 13.6 g/mL?

1 mL 4.41 mL
60.0 g x =
13.6 g

inverse of
density
58
 IS UNIT CONVERSION
IMPORTANT?
 Further
 In 1999 investigation
Mars Climateshowed
orbiter
that was lost
engineers at in space
Lockheed
becausewhich
Martin, engineers
builtfailed
the to
make a simple
aircraft, conversion
calculated
from Englishmeasurements
navigational units to metricin
units, an
English embarrassing
units. When NASA’s lapse
thatengineers
JPL sent the $125 million
received the
craftthey
data, fatally close tothe
assumed the
Martian surface.
information was in metric
units, causing the confusion.
59
THE END

60