CHAPTER 1 : CELL

STRUCTURE
CELL SIZE
• cells are extremely small
• CELL THEORY – cell is the basic unit structure and function of all
living organisms
• cells can only be seen under microscope
• conversions of measurements
1 m = 1000 mm
1 mm = 1000 µm
1 µm = 1000 nm
1 nm = 1000 pm
• eukaryotes : 30 – 150 µm
• prokaryotes : 0.5 – 1.0 µm
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
 CELL SPECIALIZATION
• Specialised cells-
have developed
certain
characteristics in
order to perform
particular functions
by
undergoing differenti
ation
EXAMPLES OF ORGAN
SYSTEM IN PLANTS &
ANIMALS
MICROSCOPE
Magnification
- number of times an image is larger than the real size of the
specimen / object
= size of image
size of object
= magnification of eyepiece lens x magnification of objective lens
Resolution
- ability to distinguish between two separate points
- The higher the resolution, the greater the detail that can be
seen
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LM
& EM
Aspects LM EM
Source of radiation Visible light rays Electron beam
Resolving power 200nm 1nm
Magnification 1500x 500000x
Condenser lens Glass lens Electromagnet
Biological specimens Living / dead Dead, very thin and
dehydrated
Preparation of sample Quick and simple Time consuming
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL
 COMPARISON OF PLANT CELL & ANIMAL CELL

Common feastures :
- Surrounded by thin cell membrane
- Large nucleus with stained chromatin ( loosely
coiled threads )
- DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) consists of genetic
information
- Nucleolus made of loops of DNA from several
chromosomes
- Cytoplasm with organelles ( mitochondrion, Golgi
body )
Differences between animal & plant cell :
Centriole
- Found in animal cells
- small structure close to the nucleus

Cell wall & plasmodesmata

- Found in plant cell that gives the cell a definite shape and
prevents it from bursting when water enters by OSMOSIS
- Cell wall is rigid, thick, physically strong and freely permeable
- Cell wall made up of cellulose that may be reinforced by lignin
for extra strength
- Plasmodesmata links plant cells together
Vacuole
- Mature plant cells have large, permanent, central vacuole
- Surrounded by tonoplast – controls exchange between vacuole and
cytoplasm
- Consists of solution of pigments, enzymes, sugars, waste products,
mineral salts, oxygen and carbon dioxide
- Help to regulate osmotic properties of cells
- Maybe present in animal cells but NOT PERMANENT structure

Chloroplast
- Found in GREEN parts of plants
- Relatively large – can be seen under light microscope
- Grana consist of chlorophyll to absorb sunlight during photosynthesis
PROKARYOTIC CELL
• The general size of a prokaryotic cell is about 1-2 um.
• Note the absence of membrane bound organelles
• There is no true nucleus with a nuclear membrane
• The ribosome's are smaller than eukaryotic cells
• The slime capsule is used as a means of attachment to a
surface
• Only flagellate bacteria have the flagellum
• Plasmids are very small circular pieces of DNA that maybe
transferred from one bacteria to another.
• Cell Wall:
- Made of a murein (not cellulose), which is a glycoprotein
or peptidoglycan (i.e. a protein/carbohydrate complex).
• Plasma membrane:
- Controls the entry and exit of substances, pumping some of
them in by active transport.
• Cytoplasm:
- Contains all the enzymes needed for all metabolic reactions,
since there are no organelles.
• Ribosome:
- The smaller (70 S) type are all free in the cytoplasm, not
attached to membranes (like RER). They are used in protein
synthesis which is part of gene expression.
• Nucleoid:
- Is the region of the cytoplasm that contains DNA. It is not
surrounded by a nuclear membrane. DNA is always a closed
loop (i.e. a circular), and not associated with any proteins to
form chromatin.
• Flagella:
- These long thread like attachments are generally considered
to be for movement. They have an internal protein structure
that allows the flagella to be actively moved as a form of
propulsion.
• Pilli:
- These thread like projections are usually more numerous
than the flagella. They are associated with different types of
attachment. In some cases they are involved in the transfer
of DNA in a process called conjugation
• Slime Capsule:
- A thick polysaccharide layer outside of the cell wall, like the
glycocalyx of eukaryotes. Used for sticking cells together, as
a food reserve, as protection against desiccation and
chemicals, and as protection against phagocytosis.
EUKARYOTIC CELL
COMPARISON OF PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC
CELL
CELL MEMBRANE
• found in all cells ( plant cell and animal cell )
• based on the fluid mosaic model ( Model Singer and Nicolson )
• consist of a phospholipids bilayer ( liquid at room temperature )
• about 7 – 7.5 nm thick
• made up of proteins ( 45% ), phospholipids ( 45% ), cholesterol +
glycolipids + glycoproteins ( 10% )
• phospholipids bilayer :
- hydrophilic heads ( attracted water )
- hydrophobic tails ( non polar )
• 2 types of proteins
- extrinsic (outer and inner surface)
- intrinsic (penetrate or embedded partially in membrane)
• contain glycoproteins and glycolipids on the outer surface
• cholesterol : found between phospholipids molecules  increase flexibility
• dynamic : proteins and lipids move randomly
• functions :
- determine shape of the cell
- protective barrier between cell contents and external environment
- selectively permeable and regulates movement of substance in and out of
cell
- glycolipids : cell and antigens recognition
- phagocytosis & pinocytosis : folding of the cell membrane
- membrane proteins functions as a receptor site for the attachment of
specific hormones and neurotransmitters
- cell surface receptor proteins involve in signal transduction ( convert
extracellular signal  intracellular signal )
- some membrane protein act as an enzyme
- helps cells attach to one another to form tissues
CENTRIOLE
• found in animal cells
• functions :
- involve in the formation of spindle fibre during nuclear division to
move chromosomes during the process
- give rise to cilia and flagella
VACUOLE
• a fluid filled space in the cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane
(tonoplast)
• functions :
- protects a plant from herbivorous animals ( contain tannin that is
poisonous )
- store organic compounds ( proteins, potassium, chloride )
- enriched in pigments ( red, blue and etc )
- growth of plant cells when vacuole absorbs water
CYTOSKELETON
• network of proteins that provides mechanical support, maintain
the shape and assist in the movement of the cells
• 3 types : MICROTUBULES, MICROFILAMENTS, INTERMEDIATE
FILAMENTS 
RIBOSOME
• found on the surface of rough ER
• made up of rRNA and proteins
• 2 types :
- 70S ( prokaryotic cell, mitochondria, chloroplast )
- 80S (eukaryotic cell)
• functions :
- site of protein synthesis, binding sites of mRNA and tRNA
- free ribosomes synthesise protein and enzyme for intracellular use
MITOCHONDRIA
• contain the inner and outer membrane
• folding of the inner membrane forms cristae
• contents of mitochondria : matrix
• matrix contains DNA, 70S ribosome, and enzyme for Kreb`s cycle
• function : site of cellular aerobic respiration
CHLOROPLAST
• found in the photosynthetic tissue  photosynthesis
• large plastid containing chlorophyll
• bounded by a double membrane
• thylakoid – membrane bounded sacs
• grana – stacked of thylakoids
• stroma – contents in chloroplast
• stroma contains DNA, 70S ribosome, and starch granules
• Function : site of photosynthesis
LYSOSOME
• produced by golgi apparatus
• spherical sac, single membrane, no internal structure
• membrane is resistant to digestion and prevent the release
of enzymes which will destroy the cell contents
• contain high concentration of hydrolytic enzymes
• known as ‘ suicide bag ‘
• functions :
- digestion of ingested food
- digest worn out organelles ( autophagy )
- digest old / damaged cells ( autolysis )
- role in metamorphosis  digestion of larval tissues
GOLGI APPARATUS
• consist of stack of flattened membrane bounded by sacs
called cisternae
• functions :
- store and modify proteins from rough ER
- formation of lysosomes that contain hydrolytic enzymes
- formation of polysaccharides for the formation of cell wall
- fusion of golgi apparatus with cell membrane  phagocytic
vacuoles or pinocytic vesicles
- secretory vesicles produce by golgi apparatus contain
hormone and neurotransmitters  release by exocytosis
- adds carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins
- transports, modifies and stores lipids from smooth ER
CELL WALL
• found at the outer part of the cell membrane of plant cell,
fungus, bacteria and some protozoa
• made of cellulose (plant cells), chitin (fungi), peptidoglycan
(bacteria)
• functions :
- mechanical protection to the cell. It prevents cell from
bursting when water enters the cell. Also provides
resistance towards fungus and bacteria infections
- provide support to cell
- storage depot for some plants
- determines the shape of the cell
- cuticle layer outside cell wall  prevent excessive loss of
water
NUCLEUS
• found in all cells except prokaryotic cells, red blood cells
• largest cell organelle
• Eukaryotic cells : double membrane bound nucleus
• Structure :
- nuclear envelope : contains nuclear pores and separates the
nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm
- nucleoplasm : contain nucleolus, chromatin, nucleotides, mineral
ions, enzymes
- nucleolus : contain DNA, RNA, protein
• functions :
- control centre for the cell such as substance exchange, mitosis,
secretion
- contain genetic material of the cell and carries out cell division
- produce ribosome and RNA
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• membranous system found at the side of the nucleus, connecting
with the nuclear membrane
• 2 types : smooth ER, rough ER
• Smooth ER : lack ribosomes on the surface and involve in lipid /
steroid hormone synthesis
• Rough ER :
- has many ribosomes on the outer surface of the membrane
- involve in synthesis of protein and modification of protein
• Functions :
- Rough ER : Polypeptide chains synthesized by ribosomes are
modified and transported to the Golgi Apparatus
- Smooth ER stores / releases calcium ions for muscle contraction
- Smooth ER synthesizes, stores and transports carbohydrates and
lipids
Virus
• Viruses are non-cellular infectious particles that straddle the
boundary between ‘living’ and ‘non-living’
• They are relatively simple in structure; much smaller than
prokaryotic cells (with diameters between 20 and 300 nm)
• Structurally they have:
• A nucleic acid core (their genomes are either DNA or RNA, and can be
single or double-stranded)
• A protein coat called a ‘capsid’
• Some viruses have an outer layer called an envelope formed usually
from the membrane-phospholipids of a cell they were made in
• All viruses are parasitic in that they can only reproduce by infecting
living cells and using their protein-building machinery (ribosomes)
to produce new viral particles
Structure of virus