CONSTRUCTION

TECHNOLOGY IV

BQS 552
EARTHWORK
DEFINITI
ON
The processes whereby the surface of the earth is
excavated and transported to and compacted at
another location.
Development of a wide range of earthwork plant (size,
capacity and efficiency).

Scale: ranges from small works (the excavation of

ditches and trenches for drainage and pits and trenches
for foundation) to the large earthworks (highways and
dams).
Carried out at an early stage in a construction project,
completion of the earthworks within the scheduled time
is often key to the completion on time of the whole
project.
  Prior to the start of any action, the
Stakeout Works must be carried out.
 It is important to provide access to
machinery, trucks, ramps, etc.
 The excavations of the Earthworks are
IMPORTANCE OF carried out before beginning with
EARTHWORKS earthworks. First, it is usually clean the
land of plants, weeds or garbage that may
be in it. This action is called CLEARING.
 After this process, the excavation begins,
which aims to reach the foundations, it
can be done in two different ways:
manually, using pick and shovel; or
mechanically with the excavators.
The Earth Works excavation can be:
 Clearance
 The clearing is the movement of all the lands that are above
the level of the starting plane of the building.
 Emptying
 The emptying is carried out when the starting plane of the
building is below the ground.
 Terraced
 The earthwork is done when the ground is below the starting
plane of the building and it is necessary to bring it to the same
level.
G.L

Building
 SUCCESS OFTEN DEPENDS
ON:
An adequate site investigation
and preparing practical and
satisfactory designs of the
The choice and efficient
earthworks
use of the correct types
and size of plant to meet
the particular requirements
of the site.
 VARIOUS TECHNIQUES OF
GENERAL EXCAVATION AND THEIR
CONSIDERATION CHOICES
2.1 Bulk excavation
1.1 Site Consideration 2.2 Rock excavation
1.2 Ground Conditions 2.3 Trench excavation
2.4 Support of excavations
2.5 Embankments

1.0 2.0
 Nature of excavation
1.0
GENERAL CONSIDERATION
Availability of work area

1.1 SITE CONSIDERATION Disposal of soil

Existing services and structures

 1.1 SITE CONSIDERATION
a) Nature of excavation

• The situation of the • Areas of fill require some form of

 A detailed plan of the
excavation, whether for retaining wall or drainage, prior to
movement of spoil and depositing the spoil; especially when
reduced levels, road works, plant will need to be planning the sequence of operations.
trenches, basements or pits, prepared in the case of
have to consider the time large cut and fill
available for excavation operations. • Extended work such as trenches for
and the sequence of pipelines can be divided into sections
completed earthworks. and may progress simultaneously.

1.0 GENERAL CONSIDERATION

 1.1 Work area' is the total space
available for the manipulation

SITE CONSIDERATION of plant and storage of

materials.

b) Availability of work area

It does not include areas

for site administration or
accommodation On certain sites the work area is sufficient to
allow the sides of deep excavations to be
The total work area battered to a safe angle of repose, thereby giving
should be indicated on a a work area free from obstructions .
site plan so that
movement of plant and It is essential therefore that a study be made of
materials can be the space available and of the effect progress will
efficiently planned. have on this.
 DISCUSSION
 The following factors will affect the planning and costs
of earthwork operation. Discuss.
 i) Nature of excavation
 ii) Availability of working area
(15 marks, JUNE 2019)
 The disposal of Immediate use as
1.1 soil is achieved by backfilling
one of the elsewhere on the
SITE following
methods:
site

CONSIDERATION
Storage in spoil heaps, for use Immediate
c) Disposal of Soil later or removal at a later stage.
removal from
site to other
destination or
dumping areas.
 1.1 When the material is used
for backfilling it must be They should be
SITE suitable for the particular
operation .
positioned that they do
not interfere with access
CONSIDERATI This should involve
to work areas or become
a danger or nuisance
ON separating the cut material because of damping in The removal of spoil from
into two categories, the bad weather. site may involve the control
suitable for filling and the of lorries to allow
other for removal or other maximum utilization of
c) Disposal of Soil earthworks. earthmoving plant.

Consideration must also be

given to the stresses Some consideration must also
Consideration should be induced by spoil heaps on be given to spillage of soil
given to the position of structures or services when leaving the public
such spoil heaps in order. below ground or adjacent highways must be kept clean at
to the spoil heap. all times.
 1.1
SITE Care should be taken to
establish the position of all
CONSIDERATION pipes, cables and underground
services, which should be
clearly marked before, earth
works commence.
d) Existing Services and
Structure Where excavation involves the
disturbance of services, they
should be carefully unearthed
and supported to prevent
damage by movement or
vibration; nevertheless,
breakages almost invariably
occur.
 1.1

SITE CONSIDERATION
d) Existing Services and Structure
Existing structures adjacent to excavation areas will require support during
excavations. This may take any of the following forms:

CUT OFF WALLING STRUTTING AND SHORING (SHEET UNDERPINNING

PILES) The process of strengthening and
A thin, watertight wall of clay or
concrete built up from a cutoff A pile in a row of piles driven stabilizing the foundation of an
trench to reduce seepage. side by side to retain earth or existing building or other
prevent seepage. structure.
CUT OFF UNDERPINNING
STRUTTING AND SHORING (SHEET PILES)
WALLING
 Consideration must be
given to the change in
soil stability due to
The information adverse weather
obtained from the site conditions.
investigation will assist
following factors:
2.0
a) Ground support
The ground support GROUND CONDITIONS
required during
excavation. required will depend on
b) Method of keeping the strength soil, the
the excavation free depth of excavation and
from water. the length of time that the
c) Plant to be used. excavation remains open.
 2.0
2.1
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE
BULK
OF EXCAVATING AND EXCAVATION.
THEIR CHOICES

2.2 2.3
ROCK TRENCH
EXCAVATION. EXCAVATION.

2.4 2.5
SUPPORT EMBANKMENTS
EXCAVATION.
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF
EXCAVATING AND THEIR
CHOICES

Bulk excavation may include the

2.1
following operations :

• Cuttings
Bulk Excavations
• Cut and fill areas
Groundworks which remove large • Basements and large pits
amounts of materials and reduce the
general level down to near formation. • Hand excavations
They are made with large and efficient
excavators.
 Done for canals, roads and similar
form of construction.
Used of plants depend on :
i) Quantity of soil to be
transported
ii) Distance of disposal unit
iii) Conditions of ground and
water level

2.1
BULK EXCAVATION
Examples of plants:
i) Bulldozers
ii) Scrappers
iii) Dragline
iv) Combination of plant track mounted
excavation
a) Cuttings v) Face shovel
BACKACTOR BULLDOZER
DRAGLINE
DUMPER
 BACKHOE
FACE SHOVEL
ROLLER COMPACTION SCRAPPER
TRENCHER SKIMMER
 Shallow cut and fill operations occur in road
works and airfield construction.

In shallow excavation the plant may have to

stop work to prevent damage of the formation
level, or temporary works may have to be
provided over large areas, either way resulting
in extra cost.
Areas of cut and fill can be adequately
drained by temporary trenches, which
into the final sub-grade drainage.

2.1
The formation level may be protected
BULK EXCAVATION against water and the drying-out action
b) Shallow cut and fill of wind and sun, by some form of
waterproof dressing.
 2.1
BULK EXCAVATION
c) Basement construction
Synonymous for deep pit excavation over
4.5m deep.

Methods of excavation:
i) Open cut excavation
ii) Cut and cover techniques
iii) Top down techniques
iv) Composite techniques
OPEN CUT EXCAVATION CUT AND COVER
TOP DOWN TECHNIQUE
COMPOSITE TECHNIQUE
For construction purposes the term 'deep
pit', which applies to excavations over 4.5m
deep, is synonymous with the term
'basement'.

Shallow pits, which are 1.5 m deep, present

little or no problem in terms of excavation or
ground support. They are normally excavated
with a small back acting machine or by hand.

Medium pits, classified as 1.5 to 4.5 m deep,

require careful selection of plant and ground
support.

BULK EXCAVATION
c) Basement construction
 BULK EXCAVATION
c) Basement construction
Methods of excavation of
basements and deep pits are
varies.

The following are supporting

methods commonly used by Unshored excavation
contractors in protecting the
excavated area:
i) Unshored excavations
ii) Shored excavations
iii) Dumpling method
iv) Cut-off walling method
Shored excavation
Dumpling method
This is used where there are buildings or street in the
proximity.

The method is to construct a series of retaining wall in

trench, section by section, around the site perimeter
,leaving a centre called "dumpling
Cut off walling method
•The word “Cut-Off” is meant to define
the specific purposes of this technology,
i.e. to either stop the flow, to “Dam” the
underground stream, or to surround and
seal-off an area, to prevent water inflow
and water outflow from the encircled
area.

•The principal types of vertical cutoff

walls are sheet pile walls, geomembrane
walls, and slurry trench cutoff walls.
 BULK EXCAVATION
c) Basement construction
Consideration on the Choice
of support being used

Unshored excavations can

be assumed there is an ample
All the methods being With shored excavations, the
working space around the
choose have an effect on shoring can be made watertight
excavation to allow
the choice of plant to be by sealing the joints of sheet
battering of the excavation.
used. piling, thereby eliminating the
free flow of water.
This will allow more freedom
of choice in excavating plant
than the other methods.
 Excavating deep
basements and pits to use

2.1
pneumatic tools such a
clay-spades and picks.

This will occur in excavations which are heavily

BULK supported, leaving little room for mechanical

EXCAVATION excavation;
it will also be necessary in the vicinity of services which
d) Hand Excavation would be subject to damage by machine, or to the case
of removing obstacles such as boulders (large rocks), logs
(timber) or other projecting objects.
Spoil from such excavations would be put into skips for
periodic removal.
d) Hand Excavation
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF
Breaking by hand Pneumatic breaker
(hammer & wedges) EXCAVATING AND THEIR
CHOICES

Drilling with pneumatic

machine : blasting
2.2 ROCK EXCAVATION
Vary depending on:
i) Types of materials
ii) Quantity involved
Drilling with pneumatic iii) Conditioned of site
machine : freezing liquid
iv) Equipment available
Methods that use:
 The first three methods are suitable where any of
the following conditions prevail:

The noise of blasting would cause annoyance

2.2 Adjacent buildings may be subject to damage.

ROCK Blasting may cause inconvenience or

stoppage of traffic.
EXCAVATION Landslides or rock falls might result.
Accurate cutting is necessary and excessive
'over break’ would be uneconomical.

Overbreak is defined as the unwanted

removal of rock beyond a specified
maximum excavation perimeter
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF
EXCAVATING AND THEIR
a) Purpose for which the CHOICES
trench is being excavated

b)The nature of the ground

c)The time scale of the work

d)Ground water conditions

2.3 TRENCH
EXCAVATION
Choice of Methods depends on:
e)The location of the trench

f) Number of obstructions
 Trench
Excavation2.3
The methods of
a) Full depth, full excavating c) Stage depth,
length trenches are as successive
excavation follows: stages

b) Full depth,
successive
stages of
excavation
 2.3
This method is suitable for long
narrow trenches of shallow depth in
which the machine completes the
trench non-stop ahead of any other
operation. This method is suitable for
pipelines and sewers

a) Full depth, full length

excavation
 2.3
This method is suitable for deep
trenches where several operations of
work can proceed in sequence; this
would prevent stretches of trench
from being left open too long and
thereby being subject to collapse.

b) Full depth, successive stages of

excavation
 2.3
This method is suitable for very
deep trenches in confined areas or
adjacent to existing property. It
involves the support of the trench
as the work proceeds and is most
suited for operations such as deep
foundations and underpinning.

c) Stage depth, successive stages of

excavation
 2.0

2.4
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF
EXCAVATING AND THEIR
CHOICES

 Support of excavations is governed

by the following factors:
i) Type of soil
Support of Excavations ii) Ground water condition
iii) Depth and width of excavation

The soil types for discussion are as follows:

i) Loose sand, gravel and silts.
ii) Compact sands and stiff clays
iii) Rocks
Support for excavation in loose sand,
Support of Excavation
2.4
Since such soils are likely to slump quickly,
the support must be placed immediately
gravel and silts requires some form of after excavation takes place'. This means that
deep excavations will have to be dug in
continuous support, which may consist of: stages:

i) The first stage by machine

a) Trench sheeting - lightweight
pressed steel sheets ii) and, after supporting the first
stage, any subsequent stages by hand
b) Steel sheet piling or by grab.

Hand excavation is very expensive and

therefore the use of driven sheet piles
may be more suitable for deep
trenching.
a) Trench sheeting - lightweight pressed steel
sheets

b) Steel sheet piling

 Support of Excavation

2.4
Compact sand and stiff clays

Support for this type of soil can be

If the soil is subjected to
achieved by using open timbering
drying out and crumbling,
support.
the spacing of the pooling
Boards can be reduced
Involves the use of pooling boards or
accordingly.
trench sheets at intervals of
approximately 1 meter; the board are Dry clays which take up rain
supported by continuous walling and water and expand: this
trenches jack at 2 meter centres. produces extra stress in the
struts and allowance should be
made for this at the design
stage.
 2.4
Support of Excavation
Rock
Rock bolting consists of solid steel rods
which are fixed in deep drill holes by means

Support to rock excavation depends to of wedges, sleeves or grouting process; light

steel sections or steel plates are used to
large extend on the type of rock and the support the rock face through which the rods
slope of rock strata. are threaded.

In the case of unstable rock faces, open

timbering should be used to prevent any
slump/collapse.

Where the depth of excavation is

Support of these materials may be
excessive, the rock face may be stabilized
expensive; It may be more economical to
by rock bolting.
cut these back to a safe angle of repose if
space allows such treatment.
Rock Bolting
 2.0
VARIOUS TECHNIQUE OF
EXCAVATING AND THEIR
CHOICES

2.5
Embankments
Em·​bank·​ment : a wide wall of earth or stones
built to stop water from flooding an area, or to
support a road or railway
 2.5
The construction of embankments and the design profile of the
sloping sides will depend on a number of factors, such as: Embankment

The extent to which the The difficulties in

The consolidation strength properties of the construction during
of the fill in the fill may be affected by the adverse weather, when
embankment under method of construction. using clays and fine
the proposed loads. sands.
2 4
6
1 3
5
The purpose for
which the The stability of the The cost of obtaining
embankment is ground on which the suitable fill material.
constructed, e.g. the embankment is to be
loads involved. constructed.
The method of constructing an
Embankment
2.5
embankment will depend upon the extent of
the works, the type of fill material being
used and the nature of the site.

The site must be stripped of all vegetable

matter.

Fill material should be tipped and spread in

layers of such a thickness that it can be compacted
to, the required density – which will be established
by laboratory testing
 2.5
Embankment
Where large volumes of fill are involved,
the density factor obtained in the laboratory
may not be achieved on site.

This discrepancy can be minimized by the

correct selection of compaction plant: the
plant most suited will depend on the soil
type and its working moisture content.

Difficulties in varying the moisture content

of large volumes of earth between the two
stages of excavating and filling
 2.5
Embankment slope

i. The safe angle of any embankment slope will depend on the nature of the fill material used and the
height of the bank.

ii. The safe angle will range from as much as 45’ for rock waste fill down to as little as 20’ for some clays.

iii. Slopes may also be stated as ratios and percentages . e.g: a slope of 1:3 or 33% , a slope of 1:5 or 20%
Construction of access
embankment and
container terminal site
THE END
TUTORIAL (UFUTURE)
There are various methods that can be use in trench excavations. Each of the methods
are carefully selected based on numerous factors . Discuss the general consideration in
choosing the appropriate method of trench excavations. (15
marks)