Chapter III

AC Circuit Analysis

Reading: Chapter 5, 6, 9,10,11

Textbook: Fundamental of Electric
Circuits Textbook

1
Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of Electric
Circuits
Chapter 5 

Operational Amplifier

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2
Operational Amplifier - Chapter 5

5.1 What is an Op Amp?

5.2 Ideal Op Amp
5.3 Configuration of Op Amp
5.4 Cascaded Op Amp
5.5 Application
– Digital-to Analog Converter

3
 5.1 What is an Op Amp (1)
 It is an electronic unit that behaves like a
voltage-controlled voltage source.
 It is an active circuit element designed to

perform mathematical operations of

addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, differentiation and
integration.

4
 5.1 What is an Op Amp (2)

A typical op amp: (a) pin configuration, (b) circuit symbol

5
 5.1 What is an Op Amp (3)
The equivalent circuit Op Amp output:
Of the non-ideal op amp vo as a function of Vd

vd = v2 – v1; vo = Avd = A(v2 –v1)

6
 5.1 What is an Op Amp (4)
Typical ranges for op amp parameters

Parameter Typical range Ideal values

Open-loop gain, A 105 to 108  ∞

Input resistance, Ri 105 to 1013  ∞

Output resistance, Ro 10 to 100  0

Supply voltage, VCC 5 to 24 V

7
 5.2 Ideal Op Amp (1)
An ideal op amp has the following characteristics:

1. Infinite open-loop gain, A ≈ ∞

2. Infinite input resistance, Ri ≈ ∞
3. Zero output resistance, Ro ≈ 0

8
5.2 Ideal Op Amp (1)

9
 5.2 Ideal Op Amp (2)
Example 1:
Determine the value of io.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: 0.65mA

10
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: 0.65mA
11
5.3 Configuration of Op amp (1)
 Inverting amplifier reverses the polarity of the input signal
while amplifying it

Rf
vo   vi
R1

12
5.3 Configuration of Op amp (2)
Example 2

Refer to the op amp below. If vi = 0.5V, calculate: (a) the

output voltage, vo and (b) the current in the 10k
resistor.

Ans:
(a) -1.25V; (b) 50μA

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook 13

 Ans:
(a) -1.25V; (b) 50μA

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook 14

5.3 Configuration of Op amp (3)
 Non-inverting amplifier is designed to produce positive voltage
gain

 Rf 
vo  1  vi 
 R1 

15
5.3 Configuration of Op amp (4)
Example 3

For the op amp shown below, calculate the output

voltage vo.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: -1V

16
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: -1V
17
5.3 Configuration of Op amp (5)
 Summing Amplifier is an op amp circuit that combines
several inputs and produces an output that is the
weighted sum of the inputs.

 Rf Rf Rf 
vo   v1  v2  v3 
 R1 R2 R3 

18
5.3 Configuration of Op amp (6)
Example 4

Calculate vo and io in the op amp circuit shown below.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: -8V, -4.8mA

19
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: -3.8V, -1.425mA
20
5.3 Configuration of Op amp (7)
 Difference amplifier is a device that amplifies the
difference between two inputs but rejects any signals
common to the two inputs.

R2 (1  R1 / R2 ) R R R
vo  v2  2 v1  vo  v2  v1 , if 2  3  1
R1 (1  R3 / R4 ) R1 R1 R4
21
5.3 Configuration of Op amp (6)
Example 5

Determine R1, R2, R3 and R4 so that vo = -5v1+3v2 for the

circuit shown below.

Ans:
R1 = 10kΩ
R2 = 50kΩ
R3 = 20kΩ
R4 = 20kΩ
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook 22
 Ans:
R1 = 10kΩ
R2 = 50kΩ
R3 = 20kΩ
R4 = 20kΩ
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook 23
5.4 Cascaded Op Amp (1)
 It is a head-to-tail arrangement of two or more op amp
circuits such that the output to one is the input of the
next.

24
5.4 Cascaded Op Amp (2)
Example 6

Find vo and io in the circuit shown below.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: 350mV, 25μA 25

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: 350mV, 25μA 26
5.4 Cascaded Op Amp (3)
Example 7

If v1 = 1V and v2 = 2V, find vo in the op amp circuit

shown below.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: 8.667 V 27

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans: 8.667 V 28
 5.5 Application (1)
 Digital-to Analog Converter (DAC) : it is a device which
transforms digital signals into analog form.

Four-bit DCA: (a) block diagram (b) binary weighted ladder type

Rf Rf Rf Rf where
 V0  V1  V2  V3  V4
R1 R2 R3 R4 V1 – MSB, V4 – LSB
V1 to V4 are either 0 or 1 V
29
5.5 Application(2)
Example 8

For the circuit shown below, calculate vo if v1= 0V,v2=1V

and v3 = 1V.

*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans:-0.75V

30
*Refer to in-class illustration, textbook Ans:-0.75V
31
Exercise

33
Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 6 

Capacitors and Inductors

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

35
Capacitors and Inductors
Chapter 6
6.1 Capacitors
6.2 Series and Parallel Capacitors
6.3 Inductors
6.4 Series and Parallel Inductors

36
6.1 Capacitors (1)
 A capacitor is a passive element designed to store
energy in its electric field.

• A capacitor consists of two conducting plates

separated by an insulator (or dielectric).
37
6.1 Capacitors (2)
 Capacitance C is the ratio of the charge q on one plate
of a capacitor to the voltage difference v between the two
plates, measured in farads (F).

qC v  A
and C
d
• Where  is the permittivity of the dielectric material
between the plates, A is the surface area of each plate,
d is the distance between the plates.
• Unit: F, pF (10–12), nF (10–9), and F (10–6)

38
 6.1 Capacitors (3)
 If i is flowing into the +ve terminal
of C
 Charging => i is +ve
 Discharging => i is –ve

• The current-voltage relationship of capacitor

according to above convention is

dv 1 t
iC
dt
and v
C 
t0
i d t  v(t0 )

39
 6.1 Capacitors (4)
 The energy, w, stored in the
capacitor is

1
w Cv 2

2
• A capacitor is
– an open circuit to dc (dv/dt = 0).

– its voltage cannot change abruptly.

40
 6.1 Capacitors (5)
Example 1

The current through a 100-F capacitor is

i(t) = 50 sin(120 t) mA.

Calculate the voltage across it at t =1 ms and

t = 5 ms.

Take v(0) =0.

Answer:
v(1ms) = 93.14mV
v(5ms) = 1.7361V 41
 6.1 Capacitors (6)
Example 2

An initially uncharged 1-mF capacitor has the current

shown below across it.

Calculate the voltage across it at t = 2 ms and

t = 5 ms.
Answer:
v(2ms) = 100 mV
v(5ms) = 500 mV

42
 6.2 Series and Parallel
Capacitors (1)
 The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-connected
capacitors is the sum of the individual capacitances.

C eq  C1  C 2  ...  C N

43
 6.2 Series and Parallel
Capacitors (2)
 The equivalent capacitance of N series-connected
capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual capacitances.

1 1 1 1
   ... 
C eq C1 C 2 CN

44
 6.2 Series and Parallel
Capacitors (3)
Example 3
Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the terminals of
the circuit in the circuit shown below:

Answer:
Ceq = 40F

45
6.2 Series and Parallel
Capacitors (4)
Example 4
Find the voltage across each of the capacitors in the
circuit shown below:

Answer:
v1 = 30V
v2 = 30V
v3 = 10V
v4 = 20V

46
 6.3 Inductors (1)
 An inductor is a passive element designed to store
energy in its magnetic field.

• An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire.

47
 6.3 Inductors (2)
 Inductance is the property whereby an inductor exhibits
opposition to the change of current flowing through it,
measured in henrys (H).

di N2  A
vL and L
dt l

• The unit of inductors is Henry (H), mH (10–3)

and H (10–6).

48
 6.3 Inductors (3)
 The current-voltage relationship of an inductor:

1 t
i
L t0
v (t ) d t  i (t 0 )
• The power stored by an inductor:

1
w  L i2
2
• An inductor acts like a short circuit to dc (di/dt = 0)
and its current cannot change abruptly.
49
 6.3 Inductors (4)
Example 5
The terminal voltage of a 2-H inductor is
v = 10(1-t) V

Find the current flowing through it at t = 4

s and the energy stored in it within 0 < t < 4
s.

Assume i(0) = 2 A. Answer:

i(4s) = -18V
w(4s) = 320J

50
6.3 Inductors (5)
Example 6

Determine vc, iL, and the energy stored in the capacitor and
inductor in the circuit of circuit shown below under dc
conditions.

Answer:
iL = 3A
vC = 3V
wL = 1.125J
wC = 9J
51
 6.4 Series and Parallel
Inductors (1)
 The equivalent inductance of series-connected
inductors is the sum of the individual inductances.

Leq  L1  L2  ...  LN

52
 6.4 Series and Parallel
Inductors (2)
 The equivalent capacitance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal
of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual inductances.

1 1 1 1
   ... 
Leq L1 L2 LN

53
 6.4 Series and Parallel
Capacitors (3)
Example 7
Calculate the equivalent inductance for the inductive
ladder network in the circuit shown below:

Answer:
Leq = 25mH

54
 6.4 Series and Parallel
Capacitors (4)
 Current and voltage relationship for R, L, C

55
Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 9 

 Sinusoidal Steady-State
Analysis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

56
Sinusoids and Phasor
Chapter 9

9.1 Motivation
9.2 Sinusoids’ features
9.3 Phasors
9.4 Phasor relationships for circuit elements
9.5 Impedance and admittance
9.6 Kirchhoff’s laws in the frequency domain
9.7 Impedance combinations

57
 9.1 Motivation (1)
How to determine v(t) and i(t)?

vs(t) = 10V

How can we apply what we have learned before

to determine i(t) and v(t)?
58
 9.2 Sinusoids (1)
 A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or
cosine function.
 A general expression for the sinusoid,
v(t )  Vm sin(t   )

where
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
Ф = the phase
59
 9.2 Sinusoids (2)
A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for
all t and for all integers n.

2
T

1
f  Hz   2f
T

• Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be

compared by their amplitude and phase difference.
• If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase
difference is not zero, they are out of phase. 60
 9.2 Sinusoids (3)
Example 1

Given a sinusoid, 5 sin( 4t  60 o ), calculate its

amplitude, phase, angular frequency, period, and
frequency.

61
Solution:

Amplitude = 5, phase = –60o, angular frequency

= 4rad/s, Period = 0.5 s, frequency = 2 Hz.
 9.2 Sinusoids (4)
Example 2

Find the phase angle between i1  4 sin(377t  25 o )

and i2  5 cos(377t  40 o ), does i1 lead or lag i2?

63
 Solution:

Since sin(ωt+90o) = cos ωt

i2  5 sin(377t  40o  90o )  5 sin(377t  50o )
i1  4 sin(377t  25o )  4 sin(377t  180o  25o )  4 sin(377t  205o )

therefore, i1 leads i2 155o.

 9.3 Phasor (1)
 A phasor is a complex number
that represents the amplitude
and phase of a sinusoid.

 It can be represented in one of

the following three forms:

a.Rectangul z  x  jy  r (cos   j sin  )

ar z  r 
b.Polar z  re j r x2  y2
where y
c.Exponenti   tan 1
al x
65
 9.3 Phasor (2)
Example 3
 Evaluate the following complex numbers:

a. [(5  j2)(1  j4)  5 60o ]

b. 10  j5  340o
 10 30o
 3  j4

66
Solution:
a. –15.5 + j13.67
b. 8.293 + j2.2
 9.3 Phasor (3)
Mathematic operation of complex number:
1. Addition z1  z 2  ( x1  x 2 )  j ( y1  y 2 )

z1  z 2  ( x1  x2 )  j ( y1  y 2 )
2. Subtraction
z1 z 2  r1r2  1  2
3. Multiplication
z1 r1
 1   2
4. Division z 2 r2
1 1
5. Reciprocal   
z r

6. Square root z  r  2

7. Complex conjugate z   x  jy  r     re  j

8. Euler’s identity e  j  cos   j sin 

68
 9.3 Phasor (4)
 Transform a sinusoid to and from the time domain to
the phasor domain:

v(t )  Vm cos(t   ) V  Vm 
(time domain) (phasor domain)

• Amplitude and phase difference are two principal

concerns in the study of voltage and current sinusoids.
• Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our
proceeding study. If a voltage or current expression is in
the form of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by
subtracting from the phase.
69
 9.3 Phasor (5)
Example 4
Transform the following sinusoids to phasors:
i = 6cos(50t – 40o) A
v = –4sin(30t + 50o) V

70
Solution:
a. I  6  40 A
b. Since –sin(A) = cos(A+90o);
v(t) = 4cos (30t+50o+90o) = 4cos(30t+140o) V
Transform to phasor => V 4140 V
 9.3 Phasor (6)
Example 5:
Transform the sinusoids corresponding to phasors:
a.

b. V   1030 V
I  j(5  j12) A

Solution:
a) v(t) = 10cos(t + 210o) V
5
b) Since I  12  j5  12 2  52  tan 1 ( )  13 22.62
12
i(t) = 13cos(t + 22.62o) A

72
Solution:
a) v(t) = 10cos(t + 210o) V
5
b) Since I  12  j5  12 2  52  tan 1 ( )  13 22.62
12
i(t) = 13cos(t + 22.62o) A

73
 9.3 Phasor (7)
The differences between v(t) and V:
 v(t) is instantaneous or time-domain representation
V is the frequency or phasor-domain representation.
 v(t) is time dependent, V is not.
 v(t) is always real with no complex term, V is
generally complex.

Note: Phasor analysis applies only when frequency is constant; when

it is applied to two or more sinusoid signals only if they have
the same frequency.

74
9.3 Phasor (8)
Relationship between differential, integral
operation in phasor listed as follow:

v(t ) V  V
dv
dt j V

V
 vdt j
75
 9.3 Phasor (9)
Example 6
Use phasor approach, determine the current i(t) in a
circuit described by the integro-differential equation.

di
4i  8 idt  3  50 cos(2t  75)
dt

Answer: i(t) = 4.642cos(2t + 143.2o) A

76
9.3 Phasor (10)
 In-class exercise for Unit 6a, we can derive the differential
equations for the following circuit in order to solve for vo(t) in phase
domain Vo.

d 2 vo 5 dv0 400
2
  20v0   sin( 4t  15 o
)
dt 3 dt 3
• However, the derivation may sometimes be very tedious.
Is there any quicker and more systematic methods to do it?

78
9.3 Phasor (11)
The answer is YES!

Instead of first deriving the differential equation

and then transforming it into phasor to solve
for Vo, we can transform all the RLC
components into phasor first, then apply the
KCL laws and other theorems to set up a
phasor equation involving Vo directly.

79
9.4 Phasor Relationships
for Circuit Elements (1)
Resistor: Inductor: Capacitor:

80
9.4 Phasor Relationships
for Circuit Elements (2)
Summary of voltage-current relationship
Element Time domain Frequency domain

R
v  Ri V  RI

L vL
di
V  jLI
dt
C iC
dv V 
I
dt j C

81
9.4 Phasor Relationships
for Circuit Elements (3)
Example 7

If voltage v(t) = 6cos(100t – 30o) is applied to a 50 μF

capacitor, calculate the current, i(t), through the
capacitor.

Answer: i(t) = 30 cos(100t + 60o) mA

82
83
9.5 Impedance and Admittance (1)
• The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor
voltage V to the phasor current I, measured in ohms Ω.
V
Z   R  jX
I
where R = Re, is the resistance and X = Im, is the
reactance. Positive X is for L and negative X is for C.

• The admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance,

measured in siemens (S).
1 I
Y 
Z V 84
9.5 Impedance and Admittance (2)
Impedances and admittances of passive elements
Element Impedance Admittance
R 1
ZR Y
R
L 1
Z  j L Y
jL
C 1
Z  Y  j C
j C

85
9.5 Impedance and Admittance (3)
  0; Z  0

Z  j L
  ; Z  

  0; Z  

1
Z
jC   ; Z  0

86
9.5 Impedance and Admittance (4)
After we know how to convert RLC components
from time to phasor domain, we can transform
a time domain circuit into a phasor/frequency
domain circuit.
Hence, we can apply the KCL laws and other
theorems to directly set up phasor equations
involving our target variable(s) for solving.

87
9.5 Impedance and Admittance (5)
Example 8

Refer to Figure below, determine v(t) and i(t).

vs  5 cos(10t )

Answers: i(t) = 1.118cos(10t – 26.56o) A; v(t) = 2.236cos(10t + 63.43o)

V
88
vs  5 cos(10t )
 9.6 Kirchhoff’s Laws
in the Frequency Domain (1)
• Both KVL and KCL are hold in the phasor
domain or more commonly called frequency
domain.

• Moreover, the variables to be handled are

phasors, which are complex numbers.

• All the mathematical operations involved are

now in complex domain.

90
9.7 Impedance Combinations (1)

• The following principles used for DC circuit

analysis all apply to AC circuit.

• For example:
a. voltage division
b. current division
c. circuit reduction
d. impedance equivalence
e. Y-Δ transformation

91
9.7 Impedance Combinations (2)
Example 9

Determine the input impedance of the circuit in figure below

at ω =10 rad/s.

Answer: Zin = 32.38 – j73.76

92
Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 10 

Sinusoidal Steady-State

Analysis
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or
display.

94
Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
Chapter 10

10.1 Basic Approach

10.2 Nodal Analysis
10.3 Mesh Analysis
10.4 Superposition Theorem
10.5 Source Transformation
10.6 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits

95
 10.1 Basic Approach (1)
Steps to Analyze AC Circuits:
1. Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency
domain.
2. Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal
analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, etc.).
3. Transform the resulting phasor to the time domain.

Time to Freq Solve Freq to Time

variables in Freq

96
 10.2 Nodal Analysis (1)
Example 1
Using nodal analysis, find v1 and v2 in the circuit of
figure below.

Answer:
v1(t) = 11.32 sin(2t + 60.01)
v2(t) = 33.02 sin(2t + 57.12) V97
V
10.3 Mesh Analysis (1)
Example 2
Find Io in the following figure using
mesh analysis.

Answer: Io = 1.19465.44
A 99
10.4 Superposition Theorem (1)
When a circuit has sources operating at
different frequencies,
• The separate phasor circuit for each
frequency must be solved independently,
and
• The total response is the sum of time-
domain responses of all the individual phasor
circuits.

101
10.4 Superposition Theorem (2)
Example 3
Calculate vo in the circuit of figure shown below using the
superposition theorem.

Vo = 4.631 sin(5t – 81.12) + 1.051 cos(10t – 86.24) V

102
10.5 Source Transformation (1)

104
10.5 Source Transformation (2)
Example 4
Find Io in the circuit of figure below using the
concept of source transformation.

Io = 3.28899.46 A

105
10.6 Thevenin and Norton
Equivalent Circuits (1)

Thevenin transform

Norton transform

107
 10.6 Thevenin and Norton
Equivalent Circuits (2)
Example 5

Find the Thevenin equivalent at terminals a–b of

the circuit below.

Zth =12.4 – j3.2  VTH = 18.97-51.57 V

108
Alexander-Sadiku
Fundamentals of Electric Circuits
Chapter 11 

AC Power Analysis

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or

display.

110
AC Power Analysis
Chapter 11

11.1Instantaneous and Average Power

11.2Maximum Average Power Transfer
11.3Effective or RMS Value
11.4Apparent Power and Power Factor
11.5Complex Power
11.6Conservation of AC Power
11.7Power Factor Correction
11.8Power Measurement

111
 11.1 Instantaneous and Average
Power (1)
 The instantaneously power, p(t)
p (t )  v(t ) i (t )  Vm I m cos ( t   v ) cos ( t   i )
1 1
 Vm I m cos ( v   i )  Vm I m cos (2 t   v   i )
2 2
Constant power Sinusoidal power at 2t

p(t) > 0: power is absorbed by the circuit; p(t) < 0: power is absorbed by the source.
112
 11.1 Instantaneous and Average
Power (2)
 The average power, P, is the average of the instantaneous power
over one period.
1 T 1
P
T  0
p(t ) dt  Vm I m cos ( v   i )
2
1. P is not time dependent.
2. When θv = θi , it is a purely
resistive load case.
3. When θv– θi = ±90o, it is a
purely reactive load case.
4. P = 0 means that the circuit
absorbs no average power.

113
 11.1 Instantaneous and Average
Power (3)
Example 1

Calculate the instantaneous power and average power

absorbed by a passive linear network if:

v(t )  80 cos (10 t  20)

i (t )  15 sin (10 t  60)

Answer: 385.7  600cos(20t  10)W, 387.5W

114
v(t )  80 cos (10 t  20)
i (t )  15 sin (10 t  60)
11.1 Instantaneous and Average
Power (4)
Example 2

A current I  10  30flows through an impedance

Z  20 .  22Ω

Find the average power delivered to the impedance.

Answer: 927.2W

116
 11.2 Maximum Average Power
Transfer (1)
ZTH  R TH  j X TH

ZL  R L  j X L

The maximum average power

can be transferred to the load
if

XL = –XTH and RL = RTH

2
VTH
Pmax 
8 R TH

If the load is purely real, then R L   X TH  ZTH

2 2
R TH

117
 11.2 Maximum Average Power
Transfer (1)
ZTH  R TH  j X TH

ZL  R L  j X L

If the load is purely real, then R L   X TH  ZTH

2 2
R TH

118
 11.2 Maximum Average Power
Transfer (2)
Example 3

For the circuit shown below, find the load impedance ZL that
absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate that maximum
average power.

Answer: 3.415 – j0.7317, 1.429W

119
11.3 Effective or RMS Value (1)
The total power dissipated by R is given by:

1 T R T 2
P  i Rdt   i dt  I rms
2 2
R
T 0 T 0

T
Hence, Ieff is equal to: I eff  1
T 
0
i 2 dt  I rms

The rms value is a constant itself which

depending on the shape of the function i(t).

The effective of a periodic current is the dc current that delivers the

same average power to a resistor as the periodic current.
121
11.3 Effective or RMS Value (2)
The rms value of a sinusoid i(t) = Imcos(t)
is given by:
Im
I 2
rms 
2

The average power can be written in terms of

the rms values:

1
P Vm I m cos (θ v  θi )  Vrms Irms cos (θ v  θi )
2

Note: If you express amplitude of a phasor source(s) in rms, then all the
answer as a result of this phasor source(s) must also be in rms value.
122
 11.4 Apparent Power and Power
Factor (1)
 Apparent Power, S, is the product of the r.m.s. values of voltage
and current.
 It is measured in volt-amperes or VA to distinguish it from the
average or real power which is measured in watts.

P  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  S cos (θ v  θ i )

Apparent Power, S Power Factor, pf

 Power factor is the cosine of the phase difference between the

voltage and current. It is also the cosine of the angle of the load
impedance.

123
 11.4 Apparent Power and Power
Factor (2)

Purely resistive θ – θ = 0, Pf = 1 P/S = 1, all power are

v i
load (R) consumed
Purely reactive θ – θ = ±90o, pf P = 0, no real power
v i
load (L or C) consumption
=0
Resistive and θv– θi > 0 • Lagging - inductive
reactive load load
θv– θi < 0 • Leading - capacitive
(R and L/C)
load

124
 11.5 Complex Power (1)
Complex power S is the product of the voltage and the
complex conjugate of the current:

V  Vm θ v I  I m θ i

1 
V I  Vrms I rms  θ v  θ i
2

125
 11.5 Complex Power (2)
1
S  V I  Vrms I rms  θ v  θ i
2
 S  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  j Vrms I rms sin (θ v  θ i )

S = P + j Q

P: is the average power in watts delivered to a load and it is

the only useful power.
Q: is the reactive power exchange between the source and
the reactive part of the load. It is measured in VAR.
•Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf).

•Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf).

•Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf).

126
 11.5 Complex Power (3)
 S  Vrms I rmscos (θ v  θ i )  j Vrms I rms sin (θ v  θ i )

S = P + j Q

Apparent Power, S = |S| = Vrms*Irms = P  Q

2 2

Real power, P = Re(S) = S cos(θv – θi)

Reactive Power, Q = Im(S) = S sin(θv – θi)
Power factor, pf = P/S = cos(θv – θi)

127
 11.5 Complex Power (4)
 S  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  j Vrms I rms sin (θ v  θ i )

S = P + j Q

Power Triangle Impedance Triangle Power Factor

128
11.6 Conservation of AC Power (1)
The complex, real, and reactive powers of the sources
equal the respective sums of the complex, real, and
reactive powers of the individual loads.

For parallel connection:

1 1 * 1 1
S V I*  V (I1  I*2 )  V I1*  V I*2  S1  S2
2 2 2 2
The same results can be obtained for a series connection. 129
11.7 Power Factor Correction (1)
Power factor correction is the process of increasing the
power factor without altering the voltage or current to
the original load.

Power factor correction is necessary for economic reason.

130
11.7 Power Factor Correction (2)

Qc = Q1 – Q2
= P (tan θ1 - tan θ2)
= ωCV2rms

Q1 = S1 sin θ1 Qc P (tan θ1  tan θ 2 )

C  2
 2
= P tan θ1 ωVrms ω Vrms

P = S1 cos θ1 Q2 = P tan θ2
131
 11.8 Power Measurement (1)
The wattmeter is the instrument for measuring the average
power.

The basic structure Equivalent Circuit with load

If v(t )  Vm cos(t   v ) and i (t )  I m cos(t   i )

P  Vrms I rms cos (θ v  θ i )  1

2 Vm I m cos (θ v  θ i )
132
HW11

133
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