FUNDAMRNTALS OF COMPUTER ALGORITHMS

Dynamic Programming

MS.R.SHANTHI PRABHA M.Sc., m.phil.,

Assistant professor
department of computer
science
sacwc.
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 FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

Fibonacci sequence: 0 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 8 , 13 , 21 , …
Fi = i if i  1
Fi = Fi-1 + Fi-2 if i  2
Solved by a recursive program: f5

f4 f3

f3 f2 f2 f1

f2 f1 f1 f0 f1 f0

f1 f0

Much replicated computation is done.

It should be solved by a simple loop.
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DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
Dynamic Programming is an algorithm design method that can be used when the
solution to a problem may be viewed as the result of a sequence of decisions

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THE SHORTEST PATH

To find a shortest path in a multi-stage graph

3 2 7

1 4
S A B 5
T

5 6

Apply the greedy method :

the shortest path from S to T :
1+2+5=8
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THE SHORTEST PATH IN MULTISTAGE GRAPHS
e.g.
4
A D
1 18
11 9

2 5 13
S B E T
16 2
The greedy method can not be applied to this case: (S,
A, D, T) 1+4+18
5 = 23.
The real shortest pathC is: 2 F

(S, C, F, T) 5+2+2 = 9.

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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING
APPROACH
Dynamic programming approach (forward approach):
1 A
d(A, T)

2 d(B, T)
S B T

d(C, T)
5
C

d(S, T) = min{1+d(A, T), 2+d(B, T), 5+d(C, T)}

4
 d(A,T) = min{4+d(D,T), A D
d(D, T)
11+d(E,T)}
11 T
= min{4+18, 11+13} = 22. E d(E, T)
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 DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

d(B, T) = min{9+d(D, T), 5+d(E, T), 16+d(F, T)}

= min{9+18, 5+13, 16+2} = 18.
d(C, T) = min{ 2+d(F, T) } = 2+2 = 4
d(S, T) = min{1+d(A, T), 2+d(B, T), 5+d(C, T)}
= min{1+22, 2+18, 5+4} = 9.
The above way of reasoning is called
backward reasoning.

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 BACKWARD APPROACH
(FORWARD REASONING)
d(S, A) = 1
d(S, B) = 2
d(S, C) = 5
d(S,D)=min{d(S, A)+d(A, D),d(S, B)+d(B, D)}
= min{ 1+4, 2+9 } = 5
d(S,E)=min{d(S, A)+d(A, E),d(S, B)+d(B, E)}
= min{ 1+11, 2+5 } = 7
d(S,F)=min{d(S, A)+d(A, F),d(S, B)+d(B, F)}
= min{ 2+16, 5+2 } = 7
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d(S,T) = min{d(S, D)+d(D, T),d(S,E)+
d(E,T), d(S, F)+d(F, T)}
= min{ 5+18, 7+13, 7+2 }
=9

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 PRINCIPLE OF OPTIMALITY

Principle of optimality: Suppose that in solving a

problem, we have to make a sequence of decisions D1,
D2, …, Dn. If this sequence is optimal, then the last k
decisions, 1  k  n must be optimal.
e.g. the shortest path problem
If i, i1, i2, …, j is a shortest path from i to j, then i1, i2,
…, j must be a shortest path from i1 to j
In summary, if a problem can be described by a
multistage graph, then it can be solved by dynamic
programming.

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DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING

Forward approach and backward approach:

 Note that if the recurrence relations are formulated using the
forward approach then the relations are solved backwards .
i.e., beginning with the last decision
 On the other hand if the relations are formulated using the
backward approach, they are solved forwards.
To solve a problem by using dynamic
programming:
 Find out the recurrence relations.
 Represent the problem by a multistage graph.

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THE RESOURCE ALLOCATION PROBLEM
m resources, n projects
profit p(i, j) : j resources are allocated to
project i.
maximize the total profit.

Resource
Project 1 2 3
1 2 8 9
2 5 6 7
3 4 4 4
4 2 4 5
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 THE MULTISTAGE GRAPH
SOLUTION
A E I
0,1 0 0,2 0 0,3
5 4
0 5
B 7 6 F 4 4 J
1,1 0 1,2 0 1,3
2 4
5 4
S 8 C
6
G
4
K 2
T
2,1 0 2,2 0 2,3
9 0
5 4
D H L
3,1 0 3,2 0 3,3

The resource allocation problem can be described as a multistage graph.

( i, j) : i resources allocated to projects 1, 2, …, j
e.g. node H=(3, 2) : 3 resources allocated to projects 1, 2.

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Find the longest path from S to T :
(S, C, H, L, T), 8+5+0+0=13
2 resources allocated to project 1.
1 resource allocated to project 2.
0 resource allocated to projects 3, 4.

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THE TRAVELING SALESPERSON (TSP) PROBLEM

e.g. a directed graph :

2
1 2
2
10
4
6 5 9 3
8
7
4 3
4

1 2 3 4

Cost matrix: 1  2 10 5
2 2  9 
3 4 3  4
4 6 8 7 
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THE MULTISTAGE GRAPH
SOLUTION (1,2,3) 4 (1,2,3,4)
9
6
¡Û (1,2,4) 7 (1,2,4,3)
(1,2)
4
2
3 (1,3,2) ¡Û (1,3,2,4) 6
10
(1) (1,3) 1
2
4 (1,3,4) 8 (1,3,4,2)
4
A multistage graph5 can describe all possible tours of a directed graph.

Find the shortest path: (1,4) 9

8 (1,4,2) (1,4,2,3)
(1, 4, 3, 2, 1) 5+7+3+2=17 2
7
(1,4,3) 3 (1,4,3,2)

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THE REPRESENTATION OF A NODE
Suppose that we have 6 vertices in the graph.
We can combine {1, 2, 3, 4} and {1, 3, 2, 4} into one node.

(1,3,2) (1,3,2,4) (2), (4,5,6)

combine
(4), (5,6)

(3),(4,5,6) (1,2,3)
means that the(1,2,3,4)
last vertex visited
(3),is 3 and
(4,5,6) the
remaining vertices to be visited are (4, 5, 6).
(a) (b)

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 THE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING APPROACH

Let g(i, S) be the length of a shortest path starting at vertex i,

going through all vertices in S and terminating at vertex 1.
The length of an optimal tour :

g(1, V - {1})  min {c 1k  g(k, V - {1, k})}

The general form: 2 k  n

g(i, S)  min {c ij  g(j, S - {j})}

Time complexity: jS

( ),( ) (n-k)
n
n   ( n  1)( nn  2k )(n  k )  
n 2
k 2
(n-1)( n  k )
 O(n 2 2 n ) 8-
18
THE LONGEST COMMON SUBSEQUENCE (LCS)
PROBLEM

A string : A = b a c a d
A subsequence of A: deleting 0 or more symbols
from A (not necessarily consecutive).
e.g. ad, ac, bac, acad, bacad, bcd.
Common subsequences of A = b a c a d and
B = a c c b a d c b : ad, ac, bac, acad.
The longest common subsequence (LCS) of A and
B:
a c a d.
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THE LCS ALGORITHM

Let A = a1 a2  am and B = b1 b2  bn
Let Li,j denote the length of the longest common
subsequence of a1 a2  ai and b1 b2  bj.
 Li,j = Li-1,j-1 + 1 if ai=bj
max{ Li-1,j, Li,j-1 } if aibj
L0,0 = L0,j = Li,0 = 0 for 1im, 1jn.

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The dynamic programming approach for solving the LCS
problem:

L1,1 L1,2 L1,3

L2,1 L2,2

L3,1

Time complexity: O(mn)

Lm,n

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TRACING BACK IN THE LCS ALGORITHM
e.g. A = b a c a d, B = a c c b a d c b
B
a c c b a d c b
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
b 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
a 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
A c 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
a 0 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
d 0 1 2 2 2 3 4 4 4

After all Li,j’s have been found, we can trace back to

find the longest common subsequence of A and B.
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 A C C B A D C B

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

B 0 0 0 0 11 1 1 11 11

A 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2

C 0 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3

A 0 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3

D 0 1 2 2 2 3 4 4 4
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OPTIMAL BINARY SEARCH TREES
e.g. binary search trees for 3, 7, 9, 12;

3 7 7 12

3 12 3 9 9
7

9 9 12 3

7
12
(a) (b) (c) (d)
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OPTIMAL BINARY SEARCH TREES

n identifiers : a1 <a2 <a3 <…< an

Pi, 1in : the probability that ai is searched.
Qi, 0in : the probability that x is searched
where ai < x < ai+1 (a0=-, an+1=).

n n

 P  Q
i 1
i
i 1
i 1

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 10
Identifiers : 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 12,
14
5 14
Internal node : successful
search, Pi
4 8 11 E 7

External node : unsuccessful

E 0 E 1 E 2 E 3 E 4 12 search, Qi

E 5 E 6

The expected cost of a binary tree:


n n

 P  level(a )   Q  (level(E )  1)
n 1
i i
n 0
i i

The level of the root : 1


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 THE DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING APPROACH
Let C(i, j) denote the cost of an optimal binary search
tree containing ai,…,aj .
The cost of the optimal binary search tree with ak as
its root :
  k 1
  n

C(1, n)  min Pk  Q 0    Pi  Q i   C1, k  1   Q k    Pi  Q i   C k  1, n   
1 k  n
  i 1   i  k 1 

ak
P 1 . .P k-1
P k+1
. .P n
Q 0 . .Q k-1 Q k . .Q n

a 1 ...a k-1 a k+1 ...a n

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C(1,k-1) C(k+1,n) 29
GENERAL FORMULA

  k 1

C(i, j)  min  Pk  Qi-1    Pm  Q m   C i, k  1 
i k j
  m i 
 j

 Q k    Pm  Q m   C k  1, j  
 m  k 1 
 j

 min C i, k  1  C k  1, j  Qi-1    Pm  Q m  
i k j
 m i 
ak
P 1 . .P k-1 P k+1 . .P n
Q 0 . .Q k-1 Q k . .Q n

a 1 ...a k-1
a k+1 ...a n
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C(1,k-1) C(k+1,n) 30
COMPUTATION RELATIONSHIPS OF SUBTREES
e.g. n=4

C(1,4)

C(1,3) C(2,4)
Time complexity : O(n3)
when j-i=m, there are (n-m) C(i, j)’s to compute.
Each C(i, j) withC(1,2) C(2,3) in O(m) time.
j-i=m can be computed C(3,4)

O(  m(n  m))  O(n )

1 m  n
3
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MATRIX-CHAIN MULTIPLICATION

n matrices A1, A2, …, An with size

p0  p1, p1  p2, p2  p3, …, pn-1  pn
To determine the multiplication order such that # of scalar
multiplications is minimized.
To compute Ai  Ai+1, we need pi-1pipi+1 scalar multiplications.

e.g. n=4, A1: 3  5, A2: 5  4, A3: 4  2, A4: 2  5

((A1  A2)  A3)  A4, # of scalar multiplications:
3 * 5 * 4 + 3 * 4 * 2 + 3 * 2 * 5 = 114
(A1  (A2  A3))  A4, # of scalar multiplications:
3 * 5 * 2 + 5 * 4 * 2 + 3 * 2 * 5 = 100
(A1  A2)  (A3  A4), # of scalar multiplications:
3 * 5 * 4 + 3 * 4 * 5 + 4 * 2 * 5 = 160
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Let m(i, j) denote the minimum cost for computing
Ai  Ai+1  …  Aj
0 if i  j
m(i, j)  
min
ik  j
 m(i, k)  m(k  1, j)  p i 1p k p i  if i  j
Computation sequence :

Time complexity : O(n3)

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