Arterial Blood Gas

Interpretation

Khorshidi Daniel

Information in this slide presentation is adapted from All You Really Need to Know to Interpret
Arterial Blood Gases, by Khorshidi Daniel.
 Normal Arterial Blood Gas Values*

pH 7.35 - 7.45
PaCO2 35 - 45 mm Hg
PaO2 70 - 100 mm Hg **
SaO2 93 - 98%
HCO3¯ 22 - 26 mEq/L
%MetHb < 2.0%
%COHb < 3.0%
Base excess -2.0 to 2.0 mEq/L
CaO2 16 - 22 ml O2/dl

* At sea level, breathing ambient air

** Age-dependent
 The Key to Blood Gas Interpretation:
Four Equations, Three Physiologic
Processes

Equation Physiologic Process

1) PaCO2 equation Alveolar ventilation

2) Alveolar gas equation Oxygenation
3) Oxygen content equation Oxygenation
4) Henderson-Hasselbalch equation Acid-base balance

These four equations, crucial to understanding and interpreting

arterial blood gas data, will provide the structure for this slide
presentation.
PaCO2 Equation: PaCO2 reflects ratio of metabolic CO2
production to alveolar ventilation

VCO2 x 0.863 VCO2 = CO2 production

PaCO2 = ------------------- VA = VE – VD
VA VE = minute (total) ventilation (= resp. rate x tidal volume)
VD = dead space ventilation (= resp. rate x dead space volume
0.863 converts VCO2 and VA units to mm Hg

Condition State of
PaCO2 in blood alveolar ventilation
> 45 mm Hg Hypercapnia Hypoventilation
35 - 45 mm Hg Eucapnia Normal ventilation
< 35 mm Hg Hypocapnia Hyperventilation
 Hypercapnia

VCO2 x 0.863
PaCO2 = ------------------
VA VA = VE – VD

Hypercapnia (elevated PaCO2) is a serious respiratory

problem. The PaCO2 equation shows that the only physiologic
reason for elevated PaCO2 is inadequate alveolar ventilation
(VA) for the amount of the body’s CO2 production (VCO2).
Since alveolar ventilation (VA) equals total or minute ventilation
(VE) minus dead space ventilation (VD), hypercapnia can arise
from insufficient VE, increased VD, or a combination of both.
 Hypercapnia (cont)

VCO2 x 0.863
PaCO2 = ------------------
VA VA = VE – VD

Examples of inadequate VE leading to decreased VA and

increased PaCO2: sedative drug overdose; respiratory
muscle paralysis; central hypoventilation
Examples of increased VD leading to decreased VA and
increased PaCO2: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease;
severe restrictive lung disease (with shallow, rapid breathing)
 Clinical Assessment of Hypercapnia is
Unreliable

The PaCO2 equation shows why PaCO2 cannot reliably be

assessed clinically. Since you never know the patient's VCO2
or VA, you cannot determine the VCO2/VA, which is what
PaCO2 provides. (Even if VE is measured [respiratory rate x
tidal volume], you cannot determine the amount of air going to
dead space, i.e., the dead space ventilation.)
There is no predictable correlation between PaCO2 and the
clinical picture. In a patient with possible respiratory disease,
respiratory rate, depth, and effort cannot be reliably used to
predict even a directional change in PaCO2. A patient in
respiratory distress can have a high, normal, or low PaCO2. A
patient without respiratory distress can have a high, normal, or
low PaCO2.
 Dangers of Hypercapnia

Besides indicating a serious derangement in the respiratory

system, elevated PaCO2 poses a threat for three reasons:
1) An elevated PaCO2 will lower the PAO2 (see Alveolar gas equation),
and as a result will lower the PaO2.
2) An elevated PaCO2 will lower the pH (see Henderson-Hasselbalch
equation).
3) The higher the baseline PaCO2, the greater it will rise for a given fall in
alveolar ventilation, e.g., a 1 L/min decrease in VA will raise PaCO2 a
greater amount when the baseline PaCO2 is 50 mm Hg than when it is
40 mm Hg. (See next slide)
 PCO2 vs. Alveolar Ventilation

The relationship is shown for metabolic

carbon dioxide production rates of 200
ml/min and 300 ml/min (curved lines).
A fixed decrease in alveolar ventilation
(x-axis) in the hypercapnic patient will
result in a greater rise in PaCO2 (y-
axis) than the same VA change when
PaCO2 is low or normal. (This situation
is analogous to the progressively
steeper rise in BUN as glomerular
filtration rate declines.)
This graph also shows that if alveolar
ventilation is fixed, an increase in
carbon dioxide production will result in
an increase in PaCO2.
 PaCO2 and Alveolar Ventilation: Test Your
Understanding

1. What is the PaCO2 of a patient with respiratory rate 24/min,

tidal volume 300 ml, dead space volume 150 ml, CO2
production 300 ml/min? The patient shows some evidence
of respiratory distress.
2. What is the PaCO2 of a patient with respiratory rate 10/min,
tidal volume 600 ml, dead space volume 150 ml, CO2
production 200 ml/min? The patient shows some evidence
of respiratory distress.
 PaCO2 and Alveolar Ventilation: Test Your
Understanding - Answers
1. First, you must calculate the alveolar ventilation. Since
minute ventilation is 24 x 300 or 7.2 L/min, and dead space
ventilation is 24 x 150 or 3.6 L/min, alveolar ventilation is 3.6
L/min. Then
300 ml/min x .863
PaCO2 = -----------------------
3.6 L/min

PaCO2 = 71.9 mm Hg

2. VA = VE - VD
= 10(600) - 10(150) = 6 - 1.5 = 4.5 L/min
200 ml/min x .863
PaCO2 = ---------------------- = 38.4 mm Hg
4.5 L/min
 PaCO2 and Alveolar Ventilation:
Test Your Understanding

3. A man with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

exercises on a treadmill at 3 miles/hr. His rate of CO2
production increases by 50% but he is unable to augment
alveolar ventilation. If his resting PaCO2 is 40 mm Hg and
resting VCO2 is 200 ml/min, what will be his exercise PaCO2?
 PaCO2 and Alveolar Ventilation: Test Your
Understanding - Answer
3. Exercise increases metabolic CO2 production. People with a normal respiratory
system are always able to augment alveolar ventilation to meet or exceed the
amount of VA necessary to excrete any increase in CO 2 production. As in this
example, patients with severe COPD or other forms of chronic lung disease may not
be able to increase their alveolar ventilation, resulting in an increase in PaCO 2. This
patient’s resting alveolar ventilation is

200 ml/min x .863

----------------------- = 4.32 L/min
40 mm Hg
Since CO2 production increased by 50% and alveolar ventilation not at all,
his exercise PaCO2 is

300 ml/min x .863

-------------------------- = 59.9 mm Hg
4.32 L/min
 Alveolar Gas Equation

PAO2 = PIO2 - 1.2 (PaCO2)*

Where PAO2 is the average alveolar PO2, and PIO2 is the partial
pressure of inspired oxygen in the trachea

PIO2 = FIO2 (PB – 47 mm Hg)

FIO2 is fraction of inspired oxygen and PB is the barometric

pressure. 47 mm Hg is the water vapor pressure at normal
body temperature.

* Note: This is the “abbreviated version” of the AG equation, suitable for most clinical purposes. In the longer version,
the multiplication factor “1.2” declines with increasing FIO 2, reaching zero when 100% oxygen is inhaled. In these
exercises “1.2” is dropped when FIO 2 is above 60%.
 Alveolar Gas Equation

PAO2 = PIO2 - 1.2 (PaCO2)

where PIO2 = FIO2 (PB – 47 mm Hg)

Except in a temporary unsteady state, alveolar PO2

(PAO2) is always higher than arterial PO2 (PaO2). As a
result, whenever PAO2 decreases, PaO2 also decreases.
Thus, from the AG equation:
If FIO2 and PB are constant, then as PaCO2 increases both PAO2 and PaO2
will decrease (hypercapnia causes hypoxemia).
If FIO2 decreases and PB and PaCO2 are constant, both PAO2 and PaO2 will
decrease (suffocation causes hypoxemia).
If PB decreases (e.g., with altitude), and PaCO2 and FIO2 are constant, both
PAO2 and PaO2 will decrease (mountain climbing leads to hypoxemia).
 Alveolar Gas Equation:
Test Your Understanding

1. What is the PAO2 at sea level in the following

circumstances? (Barometric pressure = 760 mm Hg)
a) FIO2 = 1.00, PaCO2 = 30 mm Hg
b) FIO2 = .21, PaCO2 = 50 mm Hg
c) FIO2 = .40, PaCO2 = 30 mm Hg

2. What is the PAO2 on the summit of Mt. Everest in the

following circumstances? (Barometric pressure = 253
mm Hg)
a) FIO2 = .21, PaCO2 = 40 mm Hg
b) FIO2 = 1.00, PaCO2 = 40 mm Hg
c) FIO2 = .21, PaCO2 = 10 mm Hg
 Alveolar Gas Equation:
Test Your Understanding - Answers
1. To calculate PAO2 the PaCO2 must be subtracted from the PIO2. Again,
the barometric pressure is 760 mm Hg since the values are obtained at
sea level. In part a, the PaCO2 of 30 mm Hg is not multiplied by 1.2 since
the FIO2 is 1.00. In parts b and c, PaCO2 is multiplied by the factor 1.2.
a) PAO2 = 1.00 (713) - 30 = 683 mm Hg
b) PAO2 = .21 (713) - 1.2 (50) = 90 mm Hg
c) PAO2 = .40 (713) - 1.2 (30) = 249 mm Hg

2. The PAO2 on the summit of Mt. Everest is calculated just as at sea level,
using the barometric pressure of 253 mm Hg.
a) PAO2 = .21 (253 - 47) - 1.2 (40) = - 5 mm Hg
b) PAO2 = 1.00 (253 - 47) - 40 = 166 mm Hg
c) PAO2 = .21 (253 - 47) - 1.2 (10) = 31 mm Hg
 P(A-a)O2
P(A-a)O2 is the alveolar-arterial difference in partial pressure of
oxygen. It is commonly called the “A-a gradient,” though it does
not actually result from an O2 pressure gradient in the lungs.
Instead, it results from gravity-related blood flow changes within
the lungs (normal ventilation-perfusion imbalance).
PAO2 is always calculated based on FIO2, PaCO2, and barometric
pressure.
PaO2 is always measured on an arterial blood sample in a “blood
gas machine.”
Normal P(A-a)O2 ranges from @ 5 to 25 mm Hg breathing room
air (it increases with age). A higher than normal P(A-a)O2 means
the lungs are not transferring oxygen properly from alveoli into the
pulmonary capillaries. Except for right to left cardiac shunts, an
elevated P(A-a)O2 signifies some sort of problem within the lungs.
 Physiologic Causes of Low PaO2

NON-RESPIRATORY P(A-a)O2
Cardiac right-to-left shunt Increased
Decreased PIO2 Normal
Low mixed venous oxygen content* Increased

RESPIRATORY P(A-a)O2

Pulmonary right-to-left shunt Increased

Ventilation-perfusion imbalance Increased
Diffusion barrier Increased
Hypoventilation (increased PaCO2) Normal

* Unlikely to be clinically significant unless there is right-to-left shunting or ventilation-perfusion imbalance

 Ventilation-perfusion Imbalance

A normal amount of ventilation-perfusion (V-Q) imbalance

accounts for the normal P(A-a)O2.
By far the most common cause of low PaO2 is an abnormal
degree of ventilation-perfusion imbalance within the hundreds
of millions of alveolar-capillary units. Virtually all lung disease
lowers PaO2 via V-Q imbalance, e.g., asthma, pneumonia,
atelectasis, pulmonary edema, COPD.
Diffusion barrier is seldom a major cause of low PaO2 (it can
lead to a low PaO2 during exercise).
 P(A-a)O2:
Test Your Understanding

3. For each of the following scenarios, calculate the P(A-a)O2

using the abbreviated alveolar gas equation; assume PB =
760 mm Hg. Which of these patients is most likely to have
lung disease? Do any of the values represent a
measurement or recording error?
a) A 35-year-old man with PaCO2 50 mm Hg, PaO2 150 mm Hg, FIO2 .40.
b) A 44-year-old woman with PaCO2 75 mm Hg, PaO2 95 mm Hg, FIO2 0.28.
c) A young, anxious man with PaO2 120 mm Hg, PaCO2 15 mm Hg, FIO2 0.21.
d) A woman in the intensive care unit with PaO 2 350 mm Hg, PaCO2 40 mm
Hg, FIO2 0.80.
e) A man with PaO2 80 mm Hg, PaCO2 72 mm Hg, FIO2 0.21.
 P(A-a)O2: Test Your Understanding -
Answers to #3
a) PAO2 = .40 (760 - 47) - 1.2 (50) = 225 mm Hg; P(A-a)O2 = 225 - 150 = 75
mm Hg
The P(A-a)O22 is elevated but actually within the expected range for
supplemental oxygen at 40%, so the patient may or may not have a defect
in gas exchange.
b) PAO2 = .28 (713) - 1.2 (75) = 200 - 90 = 110 mm Hg; P(A-a)O2 = 110 - 95 =
15 mm Hg
Despite severe hypoventilation, there is no evidence here for lung disease.
Hypercapnia is most likely a result of disease elsewhere in the respiratory
system, either the central nervous system or chest bellows.
c) PAO2 = .21 (713) - 1.2 (15) = 150 - 18 = 132 mm Hg; P(A-a)O2 = 132 - 120
= 12 mm Hg
Hyperventilation can easily raise PaO2 above 100 mm Hg when the lungs
are normal, as in this case.

(continued)
 P(A-a)O2: Test Your Understanding -
Answers to #3 (cont)
d) PAO2 = .80 (713) - 40 = 530 mm Hg (Note that the factor 1.2 is dropped
since FIO2 is above 60%)
P(A-a)O2 = 530 - 350 = 180 mm Hg
P(A-a)O2 is increased. Despite a very high PaO2, the lungs are not
transferring oxygen normally.
e) PAO2 = .21 (713) - 1.2 (72) = 150 - 86 = 64 mm Hg; P(A-a)O2 = 64 - 80 =
-16 mm Hg
A negative P(A-a)O2 is incompatible with life (unless it is a transient
unsteady state, such as sudden fall in FIO2 -- not the case here). In this
example, negative P(A-a)O2 can be explained by any of the following:
incorrect FIO2, incorrect blood gas measurement, or a reporting or
transcription error.
 SaO2 and Oxygen Content

Tissues need a requisite amount of oxygen molecules for

metabolism. Neither the PaO2 nor the SaO2 tells how much
oxygen is in the blood. How much is provided by the oxygen
content, CaO2 (units = ml O2/dl). CaO2 is calculated as:
CaO2 = quantity O2 bound + quantity O2 dissolved
to hemoglobin in plasma
CaO2 = (Hb x 1.34 x SaO2) + (.003 x PaO2)

Hb = hemoglobin in gm%; 1.34 = ml O2 that can be bound to

each gm of Hb; SaO2 is percent saturation of hemoglobin with
oxygen; .003 is solubility coefficient of oxygen in plasma: .003
ml dissolved O2/mm Hg PO2.
 Oxygen Dissociation Curve: SaO2 vs. PaO2
Also shown are CaO2 vs. PaO2 for two different hemoglobin contents: 15 gm% and 10 gm%. CaO2 units are ml O2/dl.
P50 is the PaO2 at which SaO2 is 50%.
Point “X” is discussed on later slide.
 SaO2 – Is it Calculated or Measured?
You always need to know this when confronted with blood gas
data.
SaO2 is measured in a “co-oximeter.” The traditional “blood gas
machine“ measures only pH, PaCO2, and PaO2,, whereas the co-
oximeter measures SaO2, carboxyhemoglobin, methemoglobin,
and hemoglobin content. Newer “blood gas” consoles incorporate
a co-oximeter, and so offer the latter group of measurements as
well as pH, PaCO2, and PaO2.
You should always make sure the SaO2 is measured, not
calculated. If SaO2 is calculated from PaO2 and the O2-
dissociation curve, it provides no new information and could be
inaccurate - especially in states of CO intoxication or excess
methemoglobin. CO and metHb do not affect PaO2, but do lower
the SaO2.
 Carbon Monoxide – An Important
Cause of Hypoxemia
Normal percentage of COHb in the blood is 1 - 2%, from metabolism
and small amount of ambient CO (higher in traffic-congested areas).
CO is colorless, odorless gas, a product of combustion; all smokers
have excess CO in their blood, typically 5 -10%.
CO binds 200x more avidly to hemoglobin than O 2, effectively
displacing O2 from the heme binding sites. CO is a major cause of
poisoning deaths world-wide.
CO has a “double-whammy” effect on oxygenation: 1) decreases SaO 2
by the percentage of COHb present, and 2) shifts the O 2-dissociation
curve to the left, retarding unloading of oxygen to the tissues.
CO does not affect PaO2, only SaO2. To detect CO poisoning, SaO 2
and/or COHb must be measured (requires co-oximeter). In the
presence of excess CO, SaO2 (when measured) will be lower than
expected from the PaO2.
 CO Does Not Affect PaO2 – Be Aware!
Review the O2 dissociation curve shown on a previous slide.
“X” represents the 2nd set of blood gases for a patient who
presented to the ER with headache and dyspnea.
His first blood gases showed PaO2 80 mm Hg, PaCO2 38 mm
Hg, pH 7.43. SaO2 on this first set was calculated from the O2-
dissociation curve as 97%, and oxygenation was judged
normal.
He was sent out from the ER and returned a few hours later
with mental confusion; this time both SaO2 and COHb were
measured (SaO2 shown by “X”): PaO2 79 mm Hg, PaCO2 31
mm Hg, pH 7.36, SaO2 53%, carboxyhemoglobin 46%.
CO poisoning was missed on the first set of blood gases
because SaO2 was not measured!
 Causes of Hypoxia
A General Classification

1. Hypoxemia (= low PaO2 and/or low CaO2)

a. reduced PaO2 – usually from lung disease (most common physiologic
mechanism: V-Q imbalance)
b. reduced SaO2 – most commonly from reduced PaO2; other causes
include carbon monoxide poisoning, methemoglobinemia, or rightward
shift of the O2-dissociation curve
c. reduced hemoglobin content – anemia
2. Reduced oxygen delivery to the tissues
a. reduced cardiac output – shock, congestive heart failure
b. left-to-right systemic shunt (as may be seen in septic shock)
3. Decreased tissue oxygen uptake
a. mitochondrial poisoning (e.g., cyanide poisoning)
b. left-shifted hemoglobin dissociation curve (e.g., from acute alkalosis,
excess CO, or abnormal hemoglobin structure)
How much oxygen is in the blood, and is it
adequate for the patient?
PaO2 vs. SaO2 vs. CaO2

The answer must be based on some oxygen value, but which

one? Blood gases give us three different oxygen values:
PaO2, SaO2, and CaO2 (oxygen content).
Of these three values, PaO2, or oxygen pressure, is the least
helpful to answer the question about oxygen adequacy in the
blood. The other two values - SaO2 and CaO2 - are more
useful for this purpose.
 How much oxygen is in the blood?
PaO2 vs. SaO2 vs. CaO2

OXYGEN PRESSURE: PaO2

Since PaO2 reflects only free oxygen molecules dissolved in plasma and not those bound to
hemoglobin, PaO2 cannot tell us “how much” oxygen is in the blood; for that you need to know how
much oxygen is also bound to hemoglobin, information given by the SaO 2 and hemoglobin content.

OXYGEN SATURATION: SaO2

The percentage of all the available heme binding sites saturated with oxygen is the hemoglobin
oxygen saturation (in arterial blood, the SaO 2). Note that SaO2 alone doesn’t reveal how much
oxygen is in the blood; for that we also need to know the hemoglobin content.

OXYGEN CONTENT: CaO2

Tissues need a requisite amount of O 2 molecules for metabolism. Neither the PaO 2 nor the SaO2
provide information on the number of oxygen molecules, i.e., how much oxygen is in the blood.
(Neither PaO2 nor SaO2 have units that denote any quantity.) Only CaO 2 (units ml O2/dl) tells us
how much oxygen is in the blood; this is because CaO 2 is the only value that incorporates the
hemoglobin content. Oxygen content can be measured directly or calculated by the oxygen
content equation:

CaO2 = (Hb x 1.34 x SaO2) + (.003 x PaO2)

 SaO2 and CaO2:
Test Your Understanding
Below are blood gas results from four pairs of patients. For
each letter pair, state which patient, (1) or (2), is more
hypoxemic. Units for hemoglobin content (Hb) are gm% and
for PaO2 mm Hg.
a) (1) Hb 15, PaO2 100, pH 7.40, COHb 20%
(2) Hb 12, PaO2 100, pH 7.40, COHb 0
b) (1) Hb 15, PaO2 90, pH 7.20, COHb 5%
(2) Hb 15, PaO2 50, pH 7.40, COHb 0
c) (1) Hb 5, PaO2 60, pH 7.40, COHb 0
(2) Hb 15, PaO2 100, pH 7.40, COHb 20%
d) (1) Hb 10, PaO2 60, pH 7.30, COHb 10%
(2) Hb 15, PaO2 100, pH 7.40, COHb 15%
 SaO2 and CaO2:
Test Your Understanding - Answers
a) (1) CaO2 = .78 x 15 x 1.34 = 15.7 ml O2/dl
(2) CaO2 = .98 x 12 x 1.34 = 15.8 ml O2/dl
The oxygen contents are almost identical, and therefore neither patient is more hypoxemic.
However, patient (1), with 20% CO, is more hypoxic than patient (2) because of the left-shift of
the O2-dissociation curve caused by the excess CO.

b) (1) CaO2 = .87 x 15 x 1.34 = 17.5 ml O2/dl

(2) CaO2 = .85 x 15 x 1.34 = 17.1 ml O2/dl
A PaO2 of 90 mm Hg with pH of 7.20 gives an SaO 2 of @ 92%; subtracting 5% COHb from this
value gives a true SaO2 of 87%, used in the CaO2 calculation of patient (1). A PaO2 of 50 mm
Hg with normal pH gives an SaO2 of 85%. Thus patient (2) is slightly more hypoxemic.

c) (1) CaO2 = .90 x 5 x .1.34 = 6.0 ml O2/dl

(2) CaO2 = .78 x 15 x 1.34 = 15.7 ml O2/dl
Patient (1) is more hypoxemic, because of severe anemia.
d) (1) CaO2 = .87 x 10 x .1.34 = 11.7 ml O2/dl
(2) CaO2 = .83 x 15 x 1.34 = 16.7 ml O2/dl
Patient (1) is more hypoxemic.
 Acid-base Balance
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

[HCO3-]
pH = pK + log ----------------
.03 [PaCO2]

For teaching purposes, the H-H equation can be

shortened to its basic relationships:

HCO3-
pH ~ ---------
PaCO2
pH is inversely related to [H+]; a pH change
of 1.00 represents a 10-fold change in [H+]

pH [H+] in nanomoles/L

7.00 100
7.10 80
7.30 50
7.40 40
7.52 30
7.70 20
8.00 10
 Acid-base Terminology
Acidemia: blood pH < 7.35
Acidosis: a primary physiologic process that, occurring
alone, tends to cause acidemia. Examples: metabolic
acidosis from decreased perfusion (lactic acidosis);
respiratory acidosis from hypoventilation. If the patient also
has an alkalosis at the same time, the resulting blood pH may
be low, normal, or high.
Alkalemia: blood pH > 7.45
Alkalosis: a primary physiologic process that, occurring
alone, tends to cause alkalemia. Examples: metabolic
alkalosis from excessive diuretic therapy; respiratory alkalosis
from acute hyperventilation. If the patient also has an
acidosis at the same time, the resulting blood pH may be
high, normal, or low.
 Acid-base Terminology (cont.)
Primary acid-base disorder: One of the four acid-base
disturbances that is manifested by an initial change in HCO3- or
PaCO2. They are: metabolic acidosis (MAc), metabolic alkalosis
(MAlk), respiratory acidosis (RAc), and respiratory alkalosis (RAlk).
If HCO3- changes first, the disorder is either MAc (reduced HCO3-
and acidemia) or MAlk (elevated HCO3- and alkalemia). If PaCO2
changes first, the problem is either RAlk (reduced PaCO2 and
alkalemia) or RAc (elevated PaCO2 and acidemia).
Compensation: The change in HCO3- or PaCO2 that results from
the primary event. Compensatory changes are not classified by the
terms used for the four primary acid-base disturbances. For
example, a patient who hyperventilates (lowers PaCO2) solely as
compensation for MAc does not have a RAlk, the latter being a
primary disorder that, alone, would lead to alkalemia. In simple,
uncomplicated MAc the patient will never develop alkalemia.
 Primary Acid-base Disorders:
Respiratory Alkalosis

Respiratory alkalosis - A primary disorder where the first

change is a lowering of PaCO2, resulting in an elevated pH.
Compensation (bringing the pH back down toward normal) is a
secondary lowering of bicarbonate (HCO3) by the kidneys; this
reduction in HCO3- is not metabolic acidosis, since it is not a
primary process.

Primary Event Compensatory Event

HCO3- ↓HCO3-

↑ pH ~ ------- ↑ pH ~ --------
↓ PaCO2 ↓ PaCO2
 Primary Acid-base Disorders:
Respiratory Acidosis

Respiratory acidosis - A primary disorder where the first

change is an elevation of PaCO2, resulting in decreased pH.
Compensation (bringing pH back up toward normal) is a
secondary retention of bicarbonate by the kidneys; this
elevation of HCO3- is not metabolic alkalosis since it is not a
primary process.

Primary Event Compensatory Event

HCO3- ↑ HCO3-
↓ pH ~ --------- ↓ pH ~ ---------
↑PaCO2 ↑ PaCO2
 Primary Acid-base Disorders:
Metabolic Acidosis

Metabolic acidosis - A primary acid-base disorder where the

first change is a lowering of HCO3-, resulting in decreased pH.
Compensation (bringing pH back up toward normal) is a
secondary hyperventilation; this lowering of PaCO2 is not
respiratory alkalosis since it is not a primary process.

Primary Event Compensatory Event

↓ HCO3- ↓HCO3-
↓ pH ~ ------------ ↓ pH ~ ------------
PaCO2 ↓ PaCO2
 Primary Acid-base Disorders:
Metabolic Alkalosis

Metabolic alkalosis - A primary acid-base disorder where the first

change is an elevation of HCO3-, resulting in increased pH.
Compensation is a secondary hypoventilation (increased PaCO2),
which is not respiratory acidosis since it is not a primary process.
Compensation for metabolic alkalosis (attempting to bring pH back
down toward normal) is less predictable than for the other three acid-
base disorders.

Primary Event Compensatory Event

↑ HCO3- ↑HCO3-
↑ pH ~ ------------ ↑ pH ~ ---------
PaCO2 ↑ PaCO2
 Anion Gap

Metabolic acidosis is conveniently divided into elevated and

normal anion gap (AG) acidosis. AG is calculated as

AG = Na+ - (Cl- + CO2)

Note: CO2 in this equation is the “total CO2” measured in the chemistry lab as part of
routine serum electrolytes, and consists mostly of bicarbonate. Normal AG is typically
12 ± 4 mEq/L. If AG is calculated using K +, the normal AG is 16 ± 4 mEq/L. Normal
values for AG may vary among labs, so one should always refer to local normal values
before making clinical decisions based on the AG.
 Metabolic Acid-base Disorders:
Some Clinical Causes
METABOLIC ACIDOSIS ↓HCO3- & ↓ pH
- Increased anion gap
• lactic acidosis; ketoacidosis; drug poisonings (e.g., aspirin,
ethylene glycol, methanol)
- Normal anion gap
• diarrhea; some kidney problems (e.g., renal tubular acidosis,
interstitial nephritis)

METABOLIC ALKALOSIS ↑ HCO3- & ↑ pH

Chloride responsive (responds to NaCl or KCl therapy): contraction
alkalosis, diuretics, corticosteroids, gastric suctioning, vomiting
Chloride resistant: any hyperaldosterone state (e.g., Cushing’s
syndrome, Bartter’s syndrome, severe K+ depletion)
 Respiratory Acid-base Disorders:
Some Clinical Causes
RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS ↑PaCO2 & ↓ pH
Central nervous system depression (e.g., drug overdose)
Chest bellows dysfunction (e.g., Guillain-Barré syndrome,
myasthenia gravis)
Disease of lungs and/or upper airway (e.g., chronic obstructive lung
disease, severe asthma attack, severe pulmonary edema)

RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS ↓PaCO2 & ↑ pH

Hypoxemia (includes altitude)
Anxiety
Sepsis
Any acute pulmonary insult (e.g., pneumonia, mild asthma attack, early
pulmonary edema, pulmonary embolism)
Mixed Acid-base Disorders are Common

In chronically ill respiratory patients, mixed disorders are

probably more common than single disorders, e.g., RAc +
MAlk, RAc + Mac, Ralk + MAlk.

In renal failure (and other conditions) combined MAlk + MAc

is also encountered.

Always be on the lookout for mixed acid-base disorders.

They can be missed!
 Tips to Diagnosing Mixed
Acid-base Disorders

TIP 1. Do not interpret any blood gas data for acid-base

diagnosis without closely examining the serum electrolytes:
Na+, K+, Cl-, and CO2.
• A serum CO2 out of the normal range always represents some type of
acid-base disorder (barring lab or transcription error).
• High-serum CO2 indicates metabolic alkalosis &/or bicarbonate retention
as compensation for respiratory acidosis.
• Low-serum CO2 indicates metabolic acidosis &/or bicarbonate excretion
as compensation for respiratory alkalosis.
• Note that serum CO2 may be normal in the presence of two or more
acid-base disorders.
 Tips to Diagnosing Mixed Acid-base
Disorders (cont.)

TIP 2. Single acid-base disorders do not lead to normal blood

pH. Although pH can end up in the normal range (7.35 - 7.45)
with a single mild acid-base disorder, a truly normal pH with
distinctly abnormal HCO3- and PaCO2 invariably suggests two
or more primary disorders.
Example: pH 7.40, PaCO2 20 mm Hg, HCO3- 12 mEq/L in a patient with
sepsis. Normal pH results from two co-existing and unstable acid-base
disorders - acute respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis.
 Tips to Diagnosing Mixed Acid-base
Disorders (cont)

TIP 3. Simplified rules predict the pH and HCO3- for a given

change in PaCO2. If the pH or HCO3- is higher or lower than
expected for the change in PaCO2, the patient probably has a
metabolic acid-base disorder as well.

The next slide shows expected changes in pH and HCO3- (in

mEq/L) for a 10-mm Hg change in PaCO2 resulting from
either primary hypoventilation (respiratory acidosis) or
primary hyperventilation (respiratory alkalosis).
Expected changes in pH and HCO3- for a 10-mm Hg change in
PaCO2 resulting from either primary hypoventilation (respiratory
acidosis) or primary hyperventilation (respiratory alkalosis):

ACUTE CHRONIC

Resp Acidosis
pH ↓ by 0.07 pH ↓ by 0.03
HCO3- ↑ by 1* HCO3- ↑ by 3 - 4

Resp Alkalosis
pH ↑ by 0.08 pH ↑ by 0.03
HCO3- ↓ by 2 HCO3- ↓ by 5

* Units for HCO3- are mEq/L

Predicted changes in HCO3- for a directional
change in PaCO2 can help uncover mixed
acid-base disorders.
a) A normal or slightly low HCO3- in the presence of hypercapnia
suggests a concomitant metabolic acidosis, e.g., pH 7.27,
PaCO2 50 mm Hg, HCO3- 22 mEq/L. Based on the rule for
increase in HCO3- with hypercapnia, it should be at least 25
mEq/L in this example; that it is only 22 mEq/L suggests a
concomitant metabolic acidosis.
b) A normal or slightly elevated HCO3- in the presence of
hypocapnia suggests a concomitant metabolic alkalosis, e.g.,
pH 7.56, PaCO2 30 mm Hg, HCO3- 26 mEq/L. Based on the
rule for decrease in HCO3- with hypocapnia, it should be at
least 23 mEq/L in this example; that it is 26 mEq/L suggests a
concomitant metabolic alkalosis.
 Tips to Diagnosing Mixed Acid-base
Disorders (cont.)

TIP 4. In maximally-compensated metabolic acidosis, the

numerical value of PaCO2 should be the same (or close to) as
the last two digits of arterial pH. This observation reflects the
formula for expected respiratory compensation in metabolic
acidosis:
Expected PaCO2 = [1.5 x serum CO2] + (8 ± 2)

In contrast, compensation for metabolic alkalosis (by increase in PaCO2) is

highly variable, and in some cases there may be no or minimal
compensation.
 Acid-base Disorders:
Test Your Understanding

1. A patient’s arterial blood gas shows pH of 7.14, PaCO2 of 70

mm Hg, and HCO3- of 23 mEq/L. How would you describe
the likely acid-base disorder(s)?

2. A 45-year-old man comes to the hospital complaining of

dyspnea for three days. Arterial blood gas reveals pH 7.35,
PaCO2 60 mm Hg, PaO2 57 mm Hg, HCO3- 31 mEq/L. How
would you characterize his acid-base status?
 Acid-base Disorders:
Test Your Understanding - Answers
1. Acute elevation of PaCO2 leads to reduced pH, i.e., an acute respiratory
acidosis. However, is the problem only acute respiratory acidosis or is
there some additional process? For every 10-mm Hg rise in PaCO2 (before
any renal compensation), pH falls about 0.07 units. Because this patient's
pH is down 0.26, or 0.05 more than expected for a 30-mm Hg increase in
PaCO2, there must be an additional metabolic problem. Also note that with
acute CO2 retention of this degree, the HCO3- should be elevated 3 mEq/L.
Thus a low-normal HCO3- with increased PaCO2 is another way to uncover
an additional metabolic disorder. Decreased perfusion leading to mild lactic
acidosis would explain the metabolic component.
2. PaCO2 and HCO3- are elevated, but HCO3- is elevated more than would be
expected from acute respiratory acidosis. Since the patient has been
dyspneic for several days it is fair to assume a chronic acid-base disorder.
Most likely this patient has a chronic or partially compensated respiratory
acidosis. Without electrolyte data and more history, you cannot diagnose
an accompanying metabolic disorder.
 Acid-base Disorders:
Test Your Understanding
3. State whether each of the following statements is true or false.
a) Metabolic acidosis is always present when the measured serum CO 2 changes acutely from
24 to 21 mEq/L.
b) In acute respiratory acidosis, bicarbonate initially rises because of the reaction of CO 2 with
water and the resultant formation of H2CO3.
c) If pH and PaCO2 are both above normal, the calculated bicarbonate must also be above
normal.
d) An abnormal serum CO2 value always indicates an acid-base disorder of some type.
e) The compensation for chronic elevation of PaCO 2 is renal excretion of bicarbonate.
f) A normal pH with abnormal HCO3- or PaCO2 suggests the presence of two or more acid-
base disorders.
g) A normal serum CO2 value indicates there is no acid-base disorder.
h) Normal arterial blood gas values rule out the presence of an acid-base disorder.
 Acid-base Disorders:
Test Your Understanding - Answers

3. a) false
b) true
c) true
d) true
e) false
f) true
g) false
 Summary:
Clinical and Laboratory Approach to
Acid-base Diagnosis

Determine existence of acid-base disorder from arterial blood

gas and/or serum electrolyte measurements. Check serum
CO2; if abnormal, there is an acid-base disorder. If the anion
gap is significantly increased, there is a metabolic acidosis.

Examine pH, PaCO2, and HCO3- for the obvious primary acid-
base disorder and for deviations that indicate mixed acid-base
disorders (TIPS 2 through 4).
 Summary:
Clinical and Laboratory Approach to
Acid-base Diagnosis (cont.)
Use a full clinical assessment (history, physical exam, other
lab data including previous arterial blood gases and serum
electrolytes) to explain each acid-base disorder. Remember
that co-existing clinical conditions may lead to opposing acid-
base disorders, so that pH can be high when there is an
obvious acidosis or low when there is an obvious alkalosis.
Treat the underlying clinical condition(s); this will usually
suffice to correct most acid-base disorders. If there is concern
that acidemia or alkalemia is life-threatening, aim toward
correcting pH into the range of 7.30 - 7.52 ([H+] = 50-30 nM/L).

Clinical judgment should always apply

 Arterial Blood Gases:
Test Your Overall Understanding

Case 1. A 55-year-old man is evaluated in the pulmonary lab for

shortness of breath. His regular medications include a
diuretic for hypertension and one aspirin a day. He smokes a
pack of cigarettes a day.
FIO2 .21 HCO3- 30 mEq/L
pH 7.53 %COHb 7.8%
PaCO2 37 mm Hg Hb 14 gm%
PaO2 62 mm Hg CaO2 16.5 ml O2/dl
SaO2 87%

How would you characterize his state of oxygenation, ventilation,

and acid-base balance?
 Arterial Blood Gases:
Test Your Overall Understanding
Case 1 - Discussion
OXYGENATION: The PaO2 and SaO2 are both reduced on room air. Since
P(A-a)O2 is elevated (approximately 43 mm Hg), the low PaO2 can be
attributed to V-Q imbalance, i.e., a pulmonary problem. SaO2 is reduced, in
part from the low PaO2 but mainly from elevated carboxyhemoglobin, which
in turn can be attributed to cigarettes. The arterial oxygen content is
adequate.

VENTILATION: Adequate for the patient's level of CO2 production; the

patient is neither hyper- nor hypo-ventilating.

ACID-BASE: Elevated pH and HCO3- suggest a state of metabolic alkalosis,

most likely related to the patient's diuretic; his serum K+ should be checked
for hypokalemia.
 Arterial Blood Gases:
Test Your Overall Understanding
Case 2. A 46-year-old man has been in the hospital two days
with pneumonia. He was recovering but has just become
diaphoretic, dyspneic, and hypotensive. He is breathing
oxygen through a nasal cannula at 3 l/min.
pH 7.40
PaCO2 20 mm Hg
%COHb 1.0%
PaO2 80 mm Hg
SaO2 95%
Hb 13.3 gm%
HCO3- 12 mEq/L
CaO2 17.2 ml O2/dl

How would you characterize his state of oxygenation, ventilation,

and acid-base balance?
 Arterial Blood Gases:
Test Your Overall Understanding

Case 2 - Discussion
OXYGENATION: The PaO2 is lower than expected for someone
hyperventilating to this degree and receiving supplemental oxygen, and
points to significant V-Q imbalance. The oxygen content is adequate.

VENTILATION: PaCO2 is half normal and indicates marked

hyperventilation.

ACID-BASE: Normal pH with very low bicarbonate and PaCO2 indicates

combined respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis. If these changes
are of sudden onset, the diagnosis of sepsis should be strongly
considered, especially in someone with a documented infection.
 Arterial Blood Gases:
Test Your Overall Understanding
Case 3. A 58-year-old woman is being evaluated in the
emergency department for acute dyspnea.
FIO2 .21
pH 7.19
PaCO2 65 mm Hg
%COHb 1.1%
PaO2 45 mm Hg
SaO2 90%
Hb 15.1 gm%
HCO3- 24 mEq/L
CaO2 18.3 ml O2/dl
How would you characterize her state of oxygenation, ventilation,
and acid-base balance?
 Arterial Blood Gases:
Test Your Overall Understanding

Case 3 - Discussion
OXYGENATION: The patient's PaO2 is reduced for two reasons -
hypercapnia and V-Q imbalance - the latter apparent from an elevated P(A-
a)O2 (approximately 27 mm Hg).

VENTILATION: The patient is hypoventilating.

ACID-BASE: pH and PaCO2 are suggestive of acute respiratory acidosis

plus metabolic acidosis; the calculated HCO3- is lower than expected from
acute respiratory acidosis alone.
 Arterial Blood Gases:
Test Your Overall Understanding
Case 4. A 23-year-old man is being evaluated in the
emergency room for severe pneumonia. His respiratory rate
is 38/min and he is using accessory breathing muscles.
FIO2.90 Na+ 154 mEq/L
pH 7.29 K+ 4.1 mEq/L
PaCO2 55 mm Hg Cl- 100 mEq/L
PaO2 47 mm Hg CO2 24 mEq/L
SaO2 86%
HCO3- 23 mEq/L
%COHb 2.1%
Hb 13 gm%
CaO2 15.8 ml O2/dl

How would you characterize his state of oxygenation, ventilation,

and acid-base balance?
 Arterial Blood Gases: Test Your Overall
Understanding
Case 4 - Discussion
OXYGENATION: The PaO2 and SaO2 are both markedly reduced on 90% inspired
oxygen, indicating severe ventilation-perfusion imbalance.

VENTILATION: The patient is hypoventilating despite the presence of tachypnea,

indicating significant dead-pace ventilation. This is a dangerous situation that
suggests the need for mechanical ventilation.

ACID-BASE: The low pH, high PaCO2, and slightly low calculated HCO3- all point to
combined acute respiratory acidosis and metabolic acidosis. Anion gap is elevated
to 30 mEq/L indicating a clinically significant anion gap (AG) acidosis, possibly from
lactic acidosis. With an of AG of 30 mEq/L, his serum CO 2 should be much lower, to
reflect buffering of the increased acid. However, his serum CO 2 is near normal,
indicating a primary process that is increasing it, i.e., a metabolic alkalosis in addition
to a metabolic acidosis. The cause of the alkalosis is as yet undetermined. In
summary: this patient has respiratory acidosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic
alkalosis.